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CALIFORNIA  STATE  SERIES 


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GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 
GEOGRAPHY 


COMPILED  BY  THE  STATE  TEXT-BOOK  COMMITTEE  AND  APPROVED 
BY  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 


DOCUMENTS  DEPARTMENT 

MAY  9     1955 

LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


SACRAMENTO: 

W.  W,  SHANNON,    SUPERINTENDENT   STATE   PRINTING 


Copyright  1904  by 
THE   PEOPLE  OP  THE  STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Copyright  1898  and  1901  by 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


In  the  compilation  of  this  work  certain  matter  from  the  Natural 
Advanced  Geography,  by  Jacques  W.  Redway  and  Russell  Hin- 
man,  has  been  used.  All  such  matter  is  protected  by  the  copyright 
entries  noted  above. 


nr  ^ 


3E— 30M — 5'o6 


G  127 

PREFACE.  si- 


The  present  is  a  period  of  marked  increase  in  the  attention  and  thought  given  to  geography.  This  is  shown  in  various 
ways.  The  demand  for  greater  markets  for  manufactured  goods  and  for  cheaper  raw  materials  has  caused  European  nations  to 
push  actively  the  colonization  of  Africa.  For  the  same  reasons  the  leading  nations  of  the  world  are  contending  for  commercial 
supremacy  on  the  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  our  own  country  is  exploring  and  developing  its  new  possessions.  Renewed 
interest  in  all  fields  of  geographical  inquiry  is  indicated  by  the  establishment  of  departments  of  geography  in  our  great  univer- 
sities and  by  the  increasing  number  of  publications  on  related  topics. 

It  is  hoped  that  these  new  books  of  the  California  State  Series  will  put  the  schools  in  touch  with  the  spirit  of  this  move- 
ment. ^The  essential  idea  of  the  modern  teaching  of  geography  is  the  mutual  relation  and  reaction  of  man  and  his  physical 
environment.  Both  books  in  this  series  are  characterized  by  the  attention  given  to  the  two  phases  of  this  thought — on  the  one 
hand,  by  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  natural  phenomena  and  facts  of  the  world  about  us  than  that  which  has  been  commonly 
given,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  by  a  greater  attention  to  the  activities  of  man  as  developed  in  modern  civilization.  The  proper 
treatment  of  the  first  phase  involves  an  appreciation  by  the  teacher  of  the  general  facts  of  physical  geography.  Familiarity 
with  the  ideas  in  the  modern  text-books  in  this  line  will  enable  the  teacher  to  recognize  the  frequent  examples  of  physiographic 
changes  as  they  occur  in  each  locality.  The  text-book  should  be  constantly  enriched  and  made  vital  by  the  study  of  nature 
itself.  The  second  phase  of  the  work  involves  a  cultivation  of  a  broad  sympathy  with  the  life  of  our  fellow  men  in  their 
various  occupations — first  in  our  own  country,  and  finally  in  the  world  at  large.  For  this  the  teacher  will  find  ever  new  illus- 
trations in  the  commercial,  industrial,  and  political  life  of  today  as  recorded  in  our  best  journals. 

Specific  helps  to  the  better  teaching  of  the  subject  will  be  found  in  the  New  Basis  of  Geography  by  J.  W.  Redway,  one  of 
the  authors  of  this  book,  and  also  in  the  Journal  of  Geography,  published  at  Chicago,  which  gives  the  current  geographical 
news  and  reviews  the  publications  in  this  subject  as  they  appear. 

i/  The  New  Grammar  School  Geography  treats  first  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  general  manner  in  which  its  physical 
features,  its  plants,  its  animals,  and  its  human  inhabitants  have  reached  their  present  condition  and  distribution  through 
centuries  of  change  and  development.  This  part  of  the  subject  has  been  presented  with  considerable  detail,  because  of  its 
fundamental  importance.  No  country,  no  people  has  attained  its  present  condition  unaffected  by  the  influences  of  other, 
and  often  of  remote  regions.  The  remainder  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  various  parts  or  countries  of  the  earth.  The 
development  of  each  part  is  studied  and' analyzed  in  the  light  of  the  preceding  lessons  on  the  Earth  as  a  Whole,  and  thus 
true  relationships  are  established. 

The  topics  for  Oral  and  Written  Work  and  the  exercises  in  Correlations  and  Comparisons  which  have  been  inserted  at 
convenient  intervals  in  this  book  not  only  serve  as  reviews,  but  are  so  framed  that  they  stimulate  thought  and  lead  the  pupil 
to  view  what  he  has  learned  from  a  somewhat  different  standpoint.  These  features  form  a  nucleus  for  the  "laboratory  work" 
now  recognized  as  an  essential  feature  in  the  study  of  geography. 

The  optional  supplemental  work  at  the  ends  of  the  various  sections  is  not  essential  to  the  course,  but  it  abounds  in 
suggestions  of  appropriate  collateral  reading  and  of  variations  in  the  exercises  of  the  class  or  of  individual  pupils.  This  work 
the  teacher  may  use  to  the  extent  which  time  and  circumstances  permit. 

Corresponding  maps  throughout  the  book  are  drawn  on  the  same  scale.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  pupil  from 
forming  misconceptions  regarding  the  comparative  size  of  countries.  On  the  physical  maps,  the  relief  features  are  shown  by 
contour  lines  in  the  manner  now  used  on  the  best  topographical  maps  issued  by  the  Government. 

MS03118 


CONTENTS. 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


THE   EARTH. 
Form  and  Size 
Rotation 


Page. 

5 
6 


UPHEAVAL   OF   THE   LAND. 

The  Surface  of  the  Earth 9 

The  Continental  Plateau - -  9 

Highlands  and  Lowlands .  10 

Coasts 10 

Upheaval  of  Mountains 11 

WEARING   AWAY   OF   THE   LAND. 

Atmospheric  Agents 12 

Ground  Water 14 

Streams  and  Lakes 15 

Divides  and   Slopes 17 

Work  of  Streams 17 

Stream  Features 18 

Glaciers 19 

Waves  and  Tides  .  _ _ 20 

Rocky  Layers  of  the  Land 22 

CLIMATE. 

Seasons 23 

Zones  and  Heat  Belts '. . .  23 

Winds 25 


\ 

Page. 


CLIMATE. 

Rainfall 26 

Ocean  Currents 27 


LIFE. 

Distribution  of  Life 

Great   Life   Regions 

Australian  Region 

South  American,  African,  and   Oriental  Regions. 


.  28 

.  29 

.  29 

.  30 

Eurasian  and  North  American   Regions..                   ...  31 

Island  and   Ocean   Life.. 32 

MAN. 

Races  of  Men _ 32 

Density  of  Population _ 34 

Man's   Culture 34 

Government  and  Religion 35 

Industries 36 

Agriculture 37 

Herding. 38 

Fishing 38 

Lumbering 39 

Mining 40 

Manufacturing 41 

Commerce 41 

Towns  and  Cities 42 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Page. 

NORTH  AMERICA 45 

United  States 49 

Northeastern  Section 63 

Northern  Section 66 

Southern  Section 78 

Plateau  Section 85 

Pacific  Section 89 

Other  Countries  of  North  America 93 

REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA 100a 

REPUBLIC  OF  CUBA 100a 

PORTO  RICO  AND  VIRGIN  ISLANDS 1006 

TERRITORY  OF  HAWAII 100c 

THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 100c 

Correlations  and  Comparisons 101 

SOUTH  AMERICA 103 

Correlations  and  Comparisons Ill 


Page. 

EURASIA 113 

Europe 117 

Central  Europe ' 122 

Southwestern  Europe 128 

Eastern  Europe 132 

Asia 135 

Correlations  and  Comparisons ' 143 

AFRICA 145 

AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 151 

COLONIES  AND  COMMERCIAL  ROUTES 154 

Correlations  and  Comparisons 156 

TABLES 157 

PRONOUNCING  INDEX 160 

REFERENCE  MAPS I-XXIV 

GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA 1-16 


NATURAL  ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


THE   EARTH. 


FORM   AND   SIZE. 


Long  ago  people  believed  the  earth  to  be  flat,  but  there 
are  several  ways  by  which  we  know  that  its  surface  is 


curved:  (1)  when  a  ship  sails  away  from  us,  we  can  see 
the  sails  and  the  tops  of  the  masts  long  after  the  lower 
part  of  the  ship  is  hidden  from  view ; 

(2)  people  have  traveled  in  one  general 
direction  entirely  around  the  earth  to 
the  place  from  which  they  started; 

(3)  when  the  earth  passes  between  the 
sun  and  the  moon,  the  earth's  shadow, 
which  falls  on  the  moon  and  darkens, 
or  eclipses,  it,  is  seen  to  be  always 
round.    As  a  sphere  is  the  only  body 

whose  shadow  is  always  round,  we  know  that  the  earth 
is  spherical. 


The  earth  is  not  a  perfect  sphere.     It  is  slightly  flattened  on  two 

opposite  sides,  so  that  its  shape  is  somewhat  like  that  of  an  orange.    A 

body  with  such  a  shape  is  called  a  splieroid.    The  earth  is  so  slightly 

flattened,  however,  that  we  may  think  of  it  as 

a  perfect  sphere. 

The  diameter  of  the  earth,  or  the  distance 

through  its  center  from  side  to  side,  is  about 

8000  miles.    The  circumference  of  a  sphere,  or 

the  greatest  distance  around  it,  is  about  3} 

times  its  diameter.     About  how  many  miles 

are  there  in  the  circumference  of  the  earth? 
We  are  likely  to  wonder  why  the  people  and 

loose  objects  do  not  slide  off  from  the  round 

earth  or  drop  away  from  the  other  side  of  it.    If  you  raise  a  stone  from  the 

ground  and  then  let  go  of  it,  what  happens  to  the  stone?    If  a  man  who 

lives  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth  lifts  a  stone  and  then  lets  go  of 
it,  which  way  do  you  suppose  the  stone  falls  ? 
On  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface  heavy 
bodies  if  unsupported  fall  toward  the  ground. 
The  earth  has  the  power  of  pulling  objects 
toward  itself,  and  the  pull  is  so  strong  that  it 
keeps  loose  bodies  close  to  the  earth's  surface. 
This  wonderful  power  is  called  gravity. 

Tests.     How  do  we  know  that  the  earth's 
surface  is  curved  ?    How  do  we  know  that  the 
shape  of  the  earth  is  spherical?    What  is  a 
spheroid  ?     Define   diameter ;    circumference. 
What  is  the  size  of  the  earth  ?    What  is  gravity  ?    Of  what  use  is  it  ? 

Optional  Supplementary  Work.  For  what  is  Magellan  famous? 
A  fast  steamship  sails  about  500  miles  a  day;  how  long  would  it  take 
to  sail  the  greatest  distance  around  the  earth  ? 


.,^^5e^ 


6 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


ROTATION. 

The  earth  is  always  rotating,  or  spinning,  slowly  upon  its 
shortest  diameter,  or  axis.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  is  im- 
portant to  us  in  several  ways. 

Day  and  Night.  The  sun  and  most  of  the  stars  are  so 
hot  that  they  send  out  light  as  a  piece  of  white-hot  iron 
does.  The  surfaces  of  the  moon  and  the  earth  are  so  cool 
that,  like  a  piece  of  cold  iron,  they 
give  out  no  light  of  their  own.  The 
stars  are  so  far  away  that  they  give  us 
very  little  light.  It  is  only  the  sun- 
lighted  part  of  the  moon  that  appears 
bright.  From  what  does  the  earth  get 
most  of  its  light?  About  how  much 
of  the  earth  is  lighted  at  one  time  ? 
What  causes  day  and  night  to  follow  each  other? 

The  line  between  the  light  half  and  the  dark  half  of  the  earth  may  be 
called  the  sunrise  and  sunset  line,  because  it  is  when  places  are  carried 
by  rotation  across  this  line  that  the  sun  appears  to  rise  or  to  set. 

Time.  The  speed  at  which  the  earth  rotates  never 
varies ;  hence  the  earth  always  occupies  the  same  amount 
of  time  in  making  a  complete  rotation.  This  amount  of 
time  is  called  a  day,*  and  for  convenience  it  has  been  di- 
vided into  twenty-four  equal  parts  called  hours,  which 
are  subdivided  into  equal  parts. 

Clocks  are  simply  machines  to  indicate  the  speed  of 
the  earth's  rotation  in  such  a  way  that  we  may  easily 
determine  these  subdivisions  of  time.  In  ordinary  clocks 
the  hour  hand  is  made  to  move  twice  around  the  dial 
while  the  earth  is  turning  once  upon  its  axis. 

Direction.  The  earth  always  rotates  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. This  direction  is  called  east,  from  an  old  word  mean- 
ing "  dawn  "  or  "  morning."  As  the  earth  turns  eastward 
the  sun  appears  to  move  across  the  sky  in  the  opposite 
direction,  which  is  called  west,  from  an  old  word  meaning 
"evening."  Why  are  these  names  ap- 
propriate ?  North  is  the  direction  on 
the  earth's  surface  from  any  place  to 
the  end  of  the  earth's  axis  called  the 
north  pole,  while  south  is  the  direction 
to  the  other  end  of  the  axis,  called  the 
south  pole.  If  you  stand  facing  east 
your  left  side  is  toward  the  north  pole, 
and  your  right  side  toward  the  south  pole.  What  direc- 
tion is  called  northeast  ?  What  direction,  northwest  ?  De- 
fine some  other  intermediate  directions. 

The  earth  moves  so  slowly  that  it  is  hard  to  tell  at  once  which  way  it 
is  turning,  but  there  are  several  easy  ways  to  find  north,  south,  east,  or 
west,  and  when  one  direction  is  known  the  others  may  be  found. 


*  The  exact  time  required  for  one  complete  rotation  of  the  earth  is  a  sidereal 
day,  and  is  measured  by  timing  the  return  of  a  star  to  the  same  position  on  suc- 
cessive nights.  There  are  366^  sidereal  days  in  a  year.  In  ordinary  affairs  of 
life  wo  use  the  mean  solar  day,  which  is  the  average  time  occupied  by  the  sun 
in  returning  to  the  same  position  over  the  earth  on  successive  days.  The 
mean  solar  day  is  about  four  minutes  longer  than  the  sidereal  day,  and  in- 
cludes a  little  more  than  one  complete  rotation  of  the  earth.  There  are  but 
365*4  mean  solar  days  in  a  year. 


NORTH  6TAR 
* 


/ 


■  (1)  About  the  21st  of  March  and  the  21st  of  September  the  sun  rises 
exactly  in  the  east,  and  sets  exactly  in  the  west.  Observe  from  your 
home  the  precise  directions  in  which  the  sun  rises  and  sets  during  the 
third  week  in  September.  During  our  summer  months  the  sun  is  exactly 
in  the  east  shortly  after  rising,  and  exactly  in  the  west  shortly  before 
setting.  During  our  winter  months  the  sun 
rises  south  of  east,  and  sets  south  of  west. 

(2)  In  our  part  of  the  world  the  sun  is  never 
exactly  overhead ;  that  is,  in  the  zenith.  When 
highest  in  the  sky  it  is  always  due  south  of  the 
zenith ;  hence  in  our  country  shadows  cast  by 
the  sun  at  noon  point  exactly  north.  Observe 
this  at  noon  to-day  or  to-morrow. 

(3)  One  star  is  nearly  in  line  with  the  earth's 
axis,  and  would  appear  directly  overhead  to  a 
person  at  the  north  pole.  It  is  called  the  Pole 
Star  or  the  North  Star.  In  our  country  it  may 
be  found  any  clear  night  by  the  aid  of  the  two 
stars  called  "  the  pointers "  in  the  group  of 
seven  stars  called  the  Dipper.  Try  to  find  the 
North  Star  to-night.  The  direction  along  the 
earth's  surface  toward  this  star  is  north. 

(4)  The  directions  may  be  found  very  closely  at  any  time  by  means 
of  the  compass.  This  is  a  little  bar  of  magnetized  steel,  called  the  mag- 
netic needle,  balanced  on  a  pivot  so  that  it  can  swing  freely.  When  the 
needle  comes  to  rest  it  always  points  to  a  place  known  as  the  north  mag- 
netic pole  and  located  north  of  Hudson  Bay  and  west  of  Baffin  Land. 
In  central  Greenland  the  needle  points  to  the  west.     In  the  western  part 


NORTH IPOLE 


Engineer's  compass. 


Mariner's  compass. 


of  the  United  States  it  points  east  of  north.     In  California  the  variation 
is  from  13°  to  19°.    Ask  a  surveyor  how  much  it  is  at  your  home. 

Tests.  Define  axis;  poles;  rotation.  Explain  day  and  night.  Define 
a  day ;  its  divisions.  How  is  a  clock  related  to  rotation  ?  Name  and  de- 
fine the  chief  directions.     Give  four  ways  of  finding  them. 

Supplemental  Work.  Illustrate  the  succession  of  day  and  night  by 
means  of  a  ball  and  a  candle.  If  your  house  fronts  south,  are  the  sunny 
rooms  at  the  front  or  at  the  back  ?    Why  t 


ROTATION,  Concluded. 

Try  to  describe  the  position  of  the  cross  on  the  left-hand  sphere  below 
so  that  a  person  can  locate  a  cross  in  exactly  the  same  position  on  the 


other  sphere.  Since  a  sphere  is  equally  curved  in  all  directions,  and  has 
no  corner  or  edge  from  which  to  measure  in  locating  points  on  its  surface, 
it  would  be  very  hard  to  describe  the  location  of  points  on  the  spherical 


earth,  were  it  not  for  the  earth's  rotation. 


THE   EARTH. 


Location.  The  turning  of  the  earth  gives  to  it  an 
axis,  and  the  ends  of  the  axis,  or  poles,  afford  two  fixed 
points  from  which  we  may  locate  any  other  place  on  the 

surface.  We  imagine  an  east  and 
west  line  drawn  around  the  earth 
halfway  between  the  poles.  This 
line  is  called  the  equator,  because 
it  divides  the  earth's  surface  into 
equal  parts  —  a  northern  and  a 
southern  half,  or  hemisphere. 

To  locate  a  place  in  a  north 
and  south  direction,  we  indicate 
its  distance  north  or  south  of  the 
equator.  This  distance  is  called  latitude.  Places  north  of 
the  equator  are  in  north  latitude;  those  south  of  the 
equator,  in  south  latitude.  All  places  on  the  same  side  of 
the  equator  and  at  the  same  distance  from  it  are  in  the 
same  latitude.  A  line  connecting  such  places  is  parallel 
with  the  equator,  and  so  such  a  line  is  called  a  parallel 
of  latitude.  Any  number  of  such  parallels  may  be  drawn. 
The  dotted  lines  in  the  diagram 
represent  parallels. 

At  all  places  on  the  same  north 
and  south  line  noon  occurs  at  the 
same  instant.  A  north  and  south 
line  extending  from  the  north  pole 
to  the  south  pole  may  therefore 
be  called  a  mid-day  line,  or  merid- 
ian. We  may  imagine  a  meridian 
to  pass  through  any  place  on  the  earth's  surface.    The 

meridian  which  passes  through 
Greenwich,  a  part  of  London,  is 
called  the  prime  meridian. 

A  place  is  located  in  an  east  and 
west  direction  by  indicating  the  dis- 
tance of  its  meridian  east  or  west 
of  the  prime  meridian.  This  dis- 
tance is  called  the  longitude  of  the 
place.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  dia- 
gram represent  several  meridians. 

Thus  we  can  describe  the  exact  location  of  any  place  on 
the  earth's  surface  by  stating  its  latitude  and  longitude ; 
that  is,  its  distance  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  and  its 
distance  east  or  west  of  the  prime  meridian. 

How  Latitude  and  Longitude  are  measured.  The  equator  and  the 
parallels  extend  entirely  around  the  earth,  and  are  circles ;  the  meridians, 
which  extend  from  one  pole  to  the 
other,  are  called  half  circles.  We 
therefore  use  circular  measure  in 
reckoning  latitude  and  longitude. 
In  circular  measure  a  complete 
circle  is  divided  into  360  equal 
parts,  called  degrees  (°).  How  many 
degrees  are  there  in  the  equator? 
How  many  degrees  in  each  parallel  ?  How  many  degrees  in  each  me- 
ridian ?  How  many  degrees  distant  from  the  equator  is  the  north  pole  ? 
The  south  pole  ? 

As  latitude  is  measured  north  and  south  from  the  equator,  degrees  of 
latitude  are  numbered  from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  Thus  a  place 
north  of  the  equator  and  distant  one  degree  from  it  is  said  to  be  in  lati- 


100_J>080 


tude  one  degree  north,  and  a  place  south  of  the  equator  and  distant  10° 
from  it  is  in  latitude  10°  south. 

Put  your  pencil  on  the  parallel  of  10°  south  latitude  in  figure  A.  In 
what  latitude  is  the  north  pole  ?  What  is  the  latitude  of  a  place  whose 
distance  from  the  equator  is  one  third  the  way  from  the  equator  to  the 


pole  ?  What  is  the  latitude  of  a  place  halfway  from  the  equator  to  the 
north  pole  ?  Put  your  pencil  on  the  parallel  of  30°  N.  Lat. ;  20°  S.  Lat. 
Show  where  the  parallel  of  45°  N.  Lat.  should  be  drawn. 

In  figure  B  the  north  pole  is  represented  as  tilted  toward  the  observer, 
so  that  the  whole  of  several  parallels  near  the  pole  are  brought  into  view, 
and  we  can  see  that  they  represent  circles.  On  this  figure  put  your 
pencil  on  the  parallel  of  80°  N.  Lat.  Follow  this  parallel  through  its  entire 
length.    What  is  the  highest  latitude  that  a  place  can  have  ? 

As  longitude  is  measured  east  and  west  from  the  prime  meridian, 
degrees  of  longitude  are  numbered  east  and  west  from  that  meridian, 
halfway  around  the  earth.  How  many  degrees  are  there  in  half  the  dis- 
tance around  the  earth  ?  Hence  the  meridian  of  180°  east  longitude  is 
the  same  as  the  meridian  of  180°  west  longitude.  How  far  around  the 
earth  is  it  from  the  prime  meridian  ? 

In  what  longitude  is  a  place  that  is  one  fourth  the  way  round  the 
earth  west  from  the  prime  meridian  ?  Put  your  pencil  on  the  meridian 
of  90°  west  longitude ;  30°  east  longitude.  Locate  a  point  in  Lat.  20° 
N.  and  Long.  40°  W.  Locate  an- 
other in  35°  N.  and  65°  W. 

Several  parallels  are  usually 
drawn  on  maps,  sometimes  as 
straight  lines,  but  generally  as 
curved  lines,  as  shown  in  this 
diagram,  and  the  distance  of  each 
in  degrees  from  the  equator  is 
marked  on  the  side  margins  of 
the  map.  Several  meridians  are 
also  usually  drawn  on  maps,  and 
the  distance  of  each  in  degrees 
east  or  west  of  the  prime  me- 
ridian is  marked  on  the  top  and 
bottom  margins  of  the  map. 

Tests.  What  is  the  equator?  How  does  its  location  depend  upon 
rotation?  What  is  a  hemisphere?  What  are  parallels?  Meridians? 
What  is  latitude  ?    Longitude  ?    How  are  they  measured  ? 

Supplemental  Work.  On  a  clay  ball  draw  the  equator,  parallels,  and 
meridians.  Through  how  many  degrees  does  rotation  carry  each  merid- 
ian in  an  hour  ?  When  it  is  noon  on  any  meridian,  what  time  is  it  on 
the  meridian  fifteen  degrees  to  the  east  ?  Thirty  degrees  to  the  west  ? 
One  degree  to  the  east  ?  When  it  is  noon  on  any  meridian,  in  which  di- 
rection, and  how  many  degrees  distant,  is  the  meridian  on  which  it  is 
6  a.m.?  3  p.m.?  3  a.m.?  12.20  p.m.? 

TOPICS   FOR  ORAL  OR  WRITTEN  REVIEW  ON   THE  EARTH. 
I.    Poem.    Apparent ;  real. 
II.    Size.    Definition  and  length  of  diameter ;  of  circumference. 

III.  Gravity.    Facts  about  it ;  use. 

IV.  Rotation.    Four  things  depending  on  it ;  explanation  of  each. 


40  20 


WORTH     POU 


THE  UPHEAVAL  OF   THE  LAND. 


THE   UPHEAVAL   OF   THE   LAND. 

THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  is  not  perfectly  smooth  and 
evenly  curved.  Some  parts  bulge  out  slightly,  forming 
regions  of  elevation,  while  other  parts  are  slightly  sunken, 
forming  regions  of \  depression.  The  regions  of  depression 
are  completely  filled  and  covered  to  a  great  depth  with 
salt  water  which  forms  the  sea,  while  parts  of  the  regions 
of  elevation  protrude  above  the  surface  of  the  sea  and 
form  the  land. 

Maps  of  the  Hemispheres.  Each  of  the  maps  at  the  top  of  the  op- 
posite page  shows  one  half  of  the  earth,  or  a  hemisphere.  The  blue  color 
represents  the  sea  and  the  other  colors  represent  the  land.  Is  there  more 
sea  or  land  on  the  earth's  surface  ?  From  the  table  on  p.  157  estimate 
the  proportion  of  each.  Most  of  the  land  in  the  world  lies  in  three- great 
continuous  masses,  or  continents  ;  the  remainder  consists  of  many  small 
masses,  or  islands.  Because  one  of  the  continents  was  discovered  by 
sailing  westward,  it  is  called  the  Western  Continent,  and  the  side  of  the 
world  on  which  it  is  situated  is  called  the  western  hemispliere.  The 
opposite  side  of  the  world,  or  the  eastern  hemisphere,  contains  two 
continents.  The  larger  is  called  the  Eastern  Continent.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  smaller  ? 

Name  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  Western  Continent.  By  what 
isthmus,  or  narrow  neck  of  land,  are  they  connected  ?  What  group  of 
islands  lies  between  these  grand  divisions  ?  What  large  island  is  north- 
east of  North  America  ?  What  island  near  Greenland  is  partly  in  the 
eastern  and  partly  in  the  western  hemisphere  ? 

The  Eastern  Continent,  hke  the  Western,  is  at  one  place  nearly  sepa- 
rated into  two  parts  by  arms  of  the  sea.  What  isthmus  connects  these 
parts?  What  grand  division  is  southwest  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  ?  The 
grand  division  to  the  northeast  is  Eurasia ;  but  Europe,  the  western  part 
of  Eurasia,  is  usually  considered  as  a  grand  division,  and  Asia,  the  east- 
ern part,  as  another  grand  division.  What  islands  are  near  the  coast  of 
Europe?  A  small  part  of  Asia  extends  into  the  western  hemisphere; 
by  what  strait,  or  narrow  passage  of  water,  is  it  separated  from  tne 
Western  Continent  ? 

Australia,  though  really  a  continent,  is  sometimes  called  an  island, 
and  sometimes  a  grand  division.  What  island  group,  or  archipelago,  lies 
between  Asia  and  Australia  ? 

In  which  grand  division  do  we  live  ?  Examine  the  table  on  p.  157, 
and  make  a  list  of  the  grand  divisions  in  the  order  of  their  size. 

What  is  the  name  of  the  part  of  the  sea  surrounding  the  south  polar 
region  ?  Prom  this  broad  expanse  of  sea  great  oceans  extend  northward 
between  the  continents.  What  ocean  extends  northward  between  Amer- 
ica and  Africa?  Between  Africa  and  Australia?  Between  Australia 
and  America  ?  Which  of  these  oceans  is  largest  ?  Which  is  narrowest  ? 
Name  the  branch  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  surrounds  the  north 
pole.  From  the  table  on  p.  157  make  a  list  of  the  oceans  in  the  order 
of  their  size. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  a  map  containing  an  island,  an  isthmus, 
a  strait,  and  an  archipelago.    Model  these  forms. 

THE   CONTINENTAL   PLATEAU. 

The  Star-shaped  Map.  If  we  peel  one  half  of  an  orange  in  gores, 
and  then  turn  back  the  skin,  as  in  the  pictures  to  the  right,  we  bring  the 
skin  of  the  whole  orange  into  view.  On  the  same  principle  a  single  map 
showing  the  surface  of  the  whole  round  earth  may  be  drawn  as  at  the 
bottom  of  the  opposite  page. 

The  north  pole  is  represented  at  the  center  of  the  map ;  hence  north 
on  this  map  is  toward  the  center  from  all  sides,  and  the  direction  of  the 
earth's  rotation,  or  east,  is  shown  by  the  arrow  points.  The  northern 
hemisphere  is  included  in  the  largest  continuous  circle,  which  marks 
the  equator,  and  the  surface  of  the  southern  hemisphere  is  represented 
as  divided  into  gores  and  turned  up  from  below  to  form  the  six  points. 


In  this  map  the  blue  tint  represents  the  sea,  and  the  land  is  colored 
green  and  buff. 

Find  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  star  map.  What  two  grand  divisions  of 
land  nearly  surround  the  Arctic  Ocean?  With  what  ocean  has  the 
Arctic  a  broad  connection  ?  With  what  ocean  is  it  connected  by  Bering 
Strait  ?  What  is  a  strait  ?  Put  your  pencil  on  the  islands  Greenland, 
Iceland,  and  the  British  Isles.  Find  South  America  ;  the  West  Indies ; 
Africa ;  Australia ;  the  East  Indies ;  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Regions  of  Depression  and  of  Elevation.  In  the  part 
of  the  sea  which  is  represented  by  the  darker  blue,  the 
water  is  very  deep,  in  some  places  more  than  five  miles, 
but  it  has  a  general  depth  of  about  two  and  one  half  miles. 
This  is  the  true  region  of  depression  on  the  earth's  surface. 

The  lighter  blue  represents  places  where  the  sea  is  much 
shallower,  the  water  being  less  than  one  mile  deep.  If  the 
surface  of  the  sea  were  to  sink  one  mile  lower  than  its 
present  level,  what  would  this  light  blue  region  become  ? 
How  would  this  affect  the  number  of  continents?  The 
parts  of  the  sea  colored  dark  blue  would  still  have  an 
average  depth  of  one  and  one  half  miles.  Thus  not  only 
the  laud  surface  but  also  the  bottom  of  the  shallower  part 
of  the  sea  (colored  light  blue  on  the  map)  may  be  consid- 
ered as  forming  a  single  great  region  of  elevation. 

Continental  Plateau.  Any  broad  region  of  elevation 
may  be  called  a  plateau ;  and,  as  this  great  region  of  eleva- 
tion contains  all  the  continents,  it  is  called  the  continental 
plateau.  Besides  the  continents  it  embraces  all  the  large 
and  many  of  the  small  islands  of  the  world ;  hence  these 
islands  are  called  continental  islands.  The  continental 
plateau  stretches  across  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  how 
many  places  does  it  extend  into  the  southern  hemisphere  ? 

Near  the  north  pole,  and  again  between  Eurasia  and  Australia,  the 
water  of  the  sea  extends  entirely  across  the  continental  plateau,  forming 
great  continental  seas.  Continental  seas,  as  shown  by  the  dark  blue  areas 
in  them,  are  very  deep  in  places,  but  their  deep  places  are  separated  from 
the  great  depths  of  the  oceans  by  the  submerged  edge  of  the  conti- 
nental plateau.  What  is  the  name  of  the  northern  sea  ?  In  the  other 
sea,  parts  of  the  plateau  are  high  enough  to  appear  above  the  water  and 
form  a  large  group  of  islands.  What  is  this  group  called  ?  Find  two 
places  where  the  water  extends  nearly  across  the  plateau,  forming  three 
continental  seas  and  a  deep  gulf.  Name  them.  What  grand  divisions 
do  these  bodies  of  water  separate  ? 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  past  ages  the  surface  of  the  conti- 
nental plateau  has  been  at  times  higher  and  at  other  times  lower  than  it 
now  is.  Much  of  the  present  land  was  once  so  low  that  the  water  flowed 
over  it,  forming  continental  seas,  and  parts  of  the  plateau  now  covered 
by  water  were  once  so  elevated  as 
to  connect  land  masses  now  sepa- 
rate. Thus  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  once 
extended  much  further  north  over 
the  central  part  of  North  Amer- 


ica ;  Australia  and  Asia  are  thought  to  have  once  been  connected  by  land, 
which  sank  until  now  the  islands  of  the  East  Indies  alone  remain  above 
water ;  animals  may  once  have  walked  from  North  America  to  Eurasia 
by  land,  where  now  the  Arctic  Ocean  forms  a  water  barrier. 


10 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


Almost  all  the  land  in  the  world  is  embraced  in  the  continental  plateau ; 
but  there  are  many  very  small  islands  in  the  midst  of  the  oceans  and  far 
from  the  shores  of  the  continents.  These  are  called  oceanic  islands.  They 
have  probably  never  been  connected  with  the  continental  plateau.  In 
which  ocean  are  many  oceanic  islands  ? 

TOPICS  ON  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  LAND  AND  WATEH. 

I.  Continental  Plateau.    Position.  Continents.  Continental  seas. 
II.  Islands.    Continental.    Oceanic. 
HI.  The  Sea.    Position.    Depth.    Oceans. 

HIGHLANDS  AND  LOWLANDS. 

The  surface  of  the  land  slopes  gradually  upward  from 
the  sea  and  in  a  few  places  reaches  heights  of  about  five 
miles,  but  its  general  height  is  a  little  less  than  half  a  mile. 
All  parts  of  the  laud  below  this  average  height   may 


A  Norwegian  fiord. 

therefore  be  called  lowland, 
while  all  higher  parts  may  be 
called  highland. 

Upon  the  star  map  and  other  phys- 
ical maps  in  this  book  the  lowlands 
are  colored  green,  and  the  highlands 
buff.  Which  side  of  the  Western 
Continent  is  mostly  highland  ?  Which 
side  is  mostly  a  broad  lowland  ?  To- 
ward' which  ocean  is  the  highland 
side  of  the  Western  Continent  ?  To- 
ward which,  oceans  are  most  of  the 
highlands  of  the  Eastern  Continent? 


the  broad  lowland  sides  of 


the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  oceans.  These  oceans  are  thus 
bordered  by  broad  lowlands,  broken  only  by  comparatively 
small  and  disconnected  areas  of  highland,  and  even  these, 
as  a  rule,  are  not  very  high.  Point  out  some  small  dis- 
connected highlands. 

Is  the  Australian  branch  of  the  continental  plateau  high  or  low? 
About  half  of  it  is  covered  with  water.  What  island  group  occupies  this 
part?  The  highest  side  of  this  part  is  toward  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
forms  an  almost  continuous  chain  of  islands  between  Asia  and  Aus- 
tralia. Toward  which  ocean  is  the  highest  side  in  Australia  itself? 
This  rim  is  not  very  high,  and  most  of  the  continent  is  lowland. 

Tests.  Define  lowlands  ;  highlands.  Where  are  the  great  highlands 
of  the  continental  plateau  ?  The  smaller  areas  of  highland  ?  Describe 
the  two  chief  slopes  of  this  plateau. 

Supplemental  Work.  Model  a  plateau  with  a  short,  abrupt  slope 
on  one  side,  and  a  long,  gentle  slope  on  the  other. 


COASTS. 

We  have  learned  that  during  past  ages  the  surface  of  the  continental 
plateau  has  been  at  times  higher  and  at  other  times  lower  than  at  pres- 
ent. But  upward  or  downward  movements  of  the  earth's  surface  are 
not  confined  to  the  past ;  they  are  still  taking  place  in  most  parts  of  the 
world,  though  so  slowly  that  we  seldom  notice  them.  The  movement 
may  be  only  a  few  inches  or  a  few  feet  in  a  hundred  years. 

In  some  regions  old  buildings  which  long  ago  stood  on  the  coast 
and  near  the  level  of  the  sea  are  now  several  feet  above  sea  level  and 
some  distance  inland,  showing  that  those  regions  have  slowly  risen  above 
the  sea.     In  other  regions  old  buildings  are  now  found  partly  covered 

by  the  sea.    What  does  this  show? 


Sinking  Coasts.  The  sur- 
face of  the  land  is  seldom  ex- 
actly smooth  or  level.  It  is  al- 
most always  broken  by  higher 
places, or  hills,  and  intervening 
lower  places,  or  valleys.  There- 
fore, when  a  coast  region  is 
slowly  sinking  beneath  the  sea, 
long  or  wide  arms  of  the  sea 


Which  oceans  are  bordered  by 


continents  ? 


The  Great  Highlands.  The  high  side  of  the  conti- 
nental plateau  is  the  side  toward  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans.  These  highlands  contain  the  highest  and  most 
rugged  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  They  are  almost 
continuous,  forming  a  great  horseshoe-shaped  curve  from 
Cape  Horn  to  Cape  of  Good  Hope.    Where  are  these  capes  ? 

Trace  a  route  between  these  capes  that  shall  lie  on  the  highland  as 
much  as  possible.  At  how  many  places  must  the  route  leave  the  high- 
lands ?  Name  these  places.  These  low  places  divide  the  great  curve  of 
highlands  into  natural  sections,  one  for  each  grand  division  of  the  land. 

The  Broad  Lowlands.  On  the  outside  of  the  highland 
curve  the  slope  is  comparatively  short  and  steep  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans.  On  the  inside  of 
the  horseshoe,  however,  the  slope  is  long  and  gradual  to 


Islands  off  the  Maine  coast. 

gradually  creep  up  the  valleys,  extending  far  into  the  land. 
They  form  gulfs  or  bays  if  they  are  wide,  and  fiords  or  es- 
tuaries if  they  are  long  and  narrow.  The  higher  parts  of 
the  coast  are  left  projecting  into  the  sea  between  the  in- 
dentations as  great  masses  or  narrow  fingers  of  land, 


THE  UPHEAVAL  OF  THE  LAND. 


11 


called  peninsulas.  The  ends  of  some  such  peninsulas  form 
high  capes,  or  promontories.  Some  peninsulas  are  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land. 
What  is  such  a  neck  of  land  called  ?  By  the  continued 
sinking  of  such  a  coast  the  water  may  at  last  overflow  a 
low  isthmus.      Into  what  will  this  transform  the  higher 

parts  of  the  peninsula? 
Thus  a  sinking  coast  is  very 
likely  to  be  irregular,  much 
broken  by  bays  and  penin- 
sulas, and  perhaps  fringed 
with  islands. 

Rising  Coasts.  The  bot- 
tom  of  the   sea   is  much 


smoother  and  more  nearly 
level  than  the  surface  of  the 
land.  It  has  long  and  grad- 
ual slopes,  but  very  few 
short  and  steep  slopes  such 
as  make  ordinary  hills  and 
valleys.  Therefore,  when  the 
smooth  sea  bottom  along  the 


Rook  layers  standing  on  end,  Utah. 


rising  margin  of  a  continent  is  brought  above  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  it  usually  makes  a  comparatively  even  and  regular 
coast  line. 

Which  is  more  even  and  regular,  the  coast  of  America  which  borders 
the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  oceans,  or  that  which  borders  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 
(star  map,  p.  8.)  The  Arctic  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  coasts  of  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Continent  are  very 
irregular,  and  are  in  general  bordered  by  lowlands.  Long  stretches 
of  these  coasts  are  slowly  sinking. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Pacific  coast  of  America  is  quite  even  and 
regular,  and  is  closely  bordered  by  highland.  Much  of  this  coast  is 
being  slowly  upheaved. 

The  Pacific  and  Indian  Ocean  coasts  of  the  Eastern  Continent  are 
more  irregular  than  the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  and  are  bordered  in 
places  by  broader  areas  of  lowland.  It  is  probable  that  parts  of  these 
coasts  are  sinking,  and  that  other  parts  are  rising. 

Tests.  How  do  we  know  that  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  have 
varied  in  elevation?  Explain  the  effect  of  sinking  on  a  coast;  the 
effect  of  rising. 

Supplemental  Work.     Draw  a  map   showing  a   gulf  or  bay,  a 
peninsula,  and  a  cape.    Model  in  a  pan,  with  clay  or  putty,  an  island 
having  a  regular  coast  line  but  an  irregular  surface.    Show,  by  pour- 
ing water  into  the  pan,  how  the  sinking  of  the  island  would  make 
the  coast  quite  irregular. 


UPHEAVAL  OF  MOUNTAINS. 

Level  Rock  Layers.  In  many  places  the  land  has  been 
raised  so  evenly  that  its  rock  layers  have  been  but  little 
disturbed  and  are  still  nearly  level.  This  is  very  likely  to 
be  the  case  in  lowland  regions. 


Folded  rock  layers,  Maryland. 

Rock  Folds.  In  other  places  the  layers  have  risen  in 
long  waves  or  folds,  as  though  the  region  had  been 
crowded  into  less  width  by  enormous  side  pressure.  In- 
stead of  being  level,  these  layers  of  rock  slant  at  all 
angles,  or  even  stand  on  end.  They  are  bent  and  broken 
across,  and  at  the  cracks,  or  faults,  they  have  slid  up  or 
down  or  over  each  other,  as  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page.  Such  disturbance  of  the  rocks  is  common  in  the 
highlands  and  is  nearly  always  found  in  mountain  regions, 
for  most  mountains  are  nothing  but  the  harder  parts  of  these 
rock  folds  left  projecting  high  above  the  surrounding  country  ; 
the  softer  parts  having  been  gradually  worn  off  and  washed 
away  by  the  rain  and  the  streams. 

One  fold,  if  its  top  has  not  been  greatly  worn  and  washed  away,  may 
make  a  single  line,  or  range,  of  mountains,  as  in  the  picture  above. 


Illustrating  parallel  ridges  formed  by  worn  rock  folds. 

If  the  top  of  the  fold  has  been  worn  away,  the  projecting  layers  of 
harder  rocks  in  its  two  sides  may  form  nearly  parallel  ranges  of  moun- 
tains. Point  to  the  parallel  ranges  in  this  diagram ;  to  the  valleys  between. 

As  a  single  fold  may  thus  produce  one  or  more  ranges,  and  as  there 
are  often  several  folds  side  by  side,  mountains  usually  occur  in  roughly 
parallel  ranges.  The  individual  ridges  may  not  be  very  long,  but  parallel 
ridges  may  continue,  and  thus  a  single  region  of  folded  rocks  may  pro- 
duce a  series  of  ranges,  forming  a  great  mountain  chain  or  system 
several  thousand  miles  long. 

(%^ 


Folded  and  broken  or  faulted  rock  layers,  Tennessee. 


12 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


r 


An  extinct  volcano  :  Mt.  Shasta,  California. 


An  active  volcano :  Mt.  Vesuvius. 

Earthquakes.  The  ris- 
ing or  the  sinking  of  the 
land,  and  the  folding  and 
breaking  and  slipping  of  the 
rocks,  have  been  going  on 
for  ages,  a  very  little  at  a 
time.  Each  break  or  slip 
has  caused  a  jar,  or  earth- 
quake, which  may  have  been  felt  for  many  miles  around. 
Earthquakes  are  common  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but 
are  most  frequent  in  the  great  highlands  and  along  the 
margin  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  these  regions,  therefore,  it 
is  thought  that  upheaval  is  now  taking  place  most  rapidly. 

Volcanoes.  At  many  places  in  the  world,  steam  and 
white-hot  melted  rock,  or  lava,  occasionally  issue  out  of 
the  earth.     Such  places  are  called  volcanoes. 

Sometimes  the  lava  issues  quietly  and  flows  in  great 
streams  over  the  surrounding  country,  where  it  cools  into 
sheets  of  hard  lava  rock.  Generally,  however,  there  are 
terrific  underground  explosions  of  the  steam,  which  hurl 
the  melted  lava  high  into  the  air,  where  it  cools  and  falls 
over  a  wide  region,  as  a  rain  of  rocky  fragments. 

These  explosions  are  generally  so  violent  that  they  jar 
the  whole  region  about  the  volcano,  and  hence  explosive 
eruptions  are  frequently  accompanied  by  earthquakes. 


The  lava  which  issues  from  the  volcano  generally  accumulates  around 
it  into  a  great  conelike  hill  or  mountain,  called  a  volcanic  cone.  Through 
this  the  throat,  or  duct,  of  the  volcano  leads  to  a  cup-shaped  opening,  or 
crater,  near  the  top. 

An  eruption  of  lava  may  last  for  weeks  or  months,  and  then  years  may 
pass  before  another  eruption  takes  place.  After  perhaps  centuries  of 
such  occasional  activity,  the  eruptions  of  a  volcano  may  cease  entirely. 
The  volcano  is  then  said  to  be  extinct. 

Nobody  knows  what  causes  volcanoes,  but  they  are  supposed  to  be  one 
of  the  results  of  the  upheaval  or  the  sinking  of  the  earth's  surface,  the 
cause  of  which  is  likewise  unknown.  Lava  from  active  or  extinct  vol- 
canoes is  found  in  nearly  every  mountain  region  where  the  rocks  are 
greatly  disturbed,  and  most  of  the  active  volcanoes  occur  near  the  Pacific 
margin  of  the  continental  plateau,  where  the  rising  of  the  earth's  surface 
is  supposed  to  be  now  going  forward  most  rapidly.    But  volcanoes  also 

occur  on  the  sea  bottom,  in  the  great 
region  of  depression,  far  from  the 
continental  plateau.  Here  they  build 
up  huge  cones,  whose  tops  mark  the 
location  of  all  oceanic  islands. 

Tests,  "What  is  a  mountain ;  a 
range  ;  a  system  ?  Explain  earth- 
quakes. Define  volcano ;  its  features. 
Where  are  many  volcanoes  ? 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out 
something  about  the  Charleston  earth- 
quake of  188G.  Read  about  the  de- 
struction of  Pompeii  in  Baldwin's 
Readers,  5th  year. 


TOPICS  ON  EFFECTS  OF  UPHEAVAL. 

I.    Continental  Plateau.    Continents.     Grand  divisions.    Con- 
tinental islands. 

II.    Surface  Movements.    Speed.    Results :  on  surface ;  on  coast. 
Indications :  volcanoes  ;  earthquakes. 

III.     Surface  Forms.    Great  highlands :  location ;  shape ;  divisions. 
Slopes :  short ;  long.    Broad  lowlands :  location ;  extent. 


THE  WEARING  AWAY  OF  THE  LAND. 

THE  ATMOSPHERIC  AGENTS. 

Erosion.  As  soon  as  any  part  of  the  sea  bottom  is  raised 
above  the  water,  it  is  exposed  to  the  changes  of  the  weather 
and  the  action  of  the  winds;  that  is,  to  atmospheric  agents. 
It  is  also  exposed  to  the  action  of  water  in  its  various 
forms.  These  are  constantly  at  work,  slowly  but  surely, 
breaking  up  the  solid  rocks,  and  moving  the  material 


Cinder  cone,  near  Lassens  Peak,  California,  showing  a  recent  lava  flow  which  by  damming  a  valley  caused  two  lakes. 


THE  WEARING  AWAY  OF  THE  LAND. 


13 


Rocks  worn  by  wind-blown  sand,  Colorado. 


down  the  slopes  of  the  land.  This  work  of  the  atmos- 
pheric agents  and  of  water  is  called  erosion.  It  results  in 
the  gradual  wearing  away  and  lowering  of  the  surface 
of  the  land. 

Detritus.  To  a  slight  depth  the  surface  of  the  land  is 
warmed  or  cooled  as  the  weather  changes.  With  each 
change  of  temperature  it  expands  or  contracts  very 
slightly,  but  with  sufficient  force  to  loosen  grains  from 
the  exposed  surface  of 
the  hardest  rocks,  and 
often  to  crack  off  larger 
fragments.  Bain  water 
slowly  dissolves  and 
carries  away  the  cement 
which  binds  together 
the  grains  of  many 
rocks.  When  rain  water 
freezes  in  crevices  of  the 
rocks,  it  expands  and 
pries  off  pieces  of  stone, 
which  slowly  crumble 
under  the  effects  of  heat 
and  cold.  Sand,  blown 
by  the  wind  against  the 
rocks,  wears  their  sur- 
face and  finally  may  re- 
duce them  entirely  to 
powder. 

By  the  operation  of  these  processes  of  weathering,  the 
surface  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  land  is  kept  covered  with 
a  layer  of  detritus  composed  of  the  coarser  or  finer  frag- 
ments of  the  solid  rocks. 

Near  the  surface,  this  layer  of  detritus  is  generally  quite  fine  and  is 
mixed  with  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  forming  soil.  At 
greater  depths  the  rock  fragments  are  larger,  while  deeper  still  is  the 
solid  bed  rock.  In  some  places  the  detritus  accumulates  many  feet  deep. 
In  other  places  it  is  removed  by  the  rain  and  wind  as  fast  as  formed. 
In  which  of  these  places  do  you  think  the  solid  rock  beneath  the  detritus 
will  crumble  away  more  quickly1? 

Movement  of  Detritus.  Whenever  disturbed,  the  soil 
particles  move  most  readily  down  the  sloping  surface. 
Why?  These  tiny  particles  are  almost  always  being 
slightly  disturbed  by  such  causes  as  the  splash  of  rain 
drops ;  their  own  expansion  and  contraction  as  the 
weather  makes  them  warmer  or  cooler;  the  expansion  of 
freezing  water  in  the  soil ;  the  action  of  the  wind ;  worms, 
insects,  or  other  animals ;  and  the  growth  of  roots  beneath 
them.  As  a  result,  the  detritus  is  very  slowly  but  cease- 
lessly moving  down  the  slopes  of  the  land.  The  movement 
is  fastest  on  steep  slopes,  slower  on  gentle  slopes,  and 
slowest  of  all  on  the  nearly  level  surface  of  plains. 

By  reason  of  this  movement  we  find  the  foot  of  nearly  every 
cliff  and  steep  hill  covered  with  a  talus,  or  apron  of  detritus, 
which  has  traveled  more  quickly  down  the  steep  slope 
above  than  it  could  travel  over  the  flatter  land  below. 
It  has  therefore  accumulated  about  the  foot  of 
the  hill,  flattening  its  lower  slope  and 
making  it   merge  gradually    into 
the  plain. 


Devils  Lake,  Rocky  Mountains,  showing  talus  slopes. 

Winds.  The  winds  are  powerful  agents,  not  only  in 
wearing  away  the  solid  rocks,  but  in  moving  the  detritus. 
What  causes  the  clouds  of  dust  which  you  sometimes 
see  ?  What  is  dust  ?  Strong  winds  may  carry  coarse  sand 
and  keep  larger  fragments  rolling  and  tumbling  along  the 
ground.  In  this  way  both  the  moving  fragments  and 
the  surface  which  they  strike  are  worn  away. 

Are  dust  clouds  more  likely  to  rise  from  dry  or  from  wet  places? 
From  bare  regions,  or  from  regions  covered  with  vegetation  ?  In  dry  or 
desert  places  and  on  sandy  seashores  an  enormous  amount  of  sand  and 
fine  rocky  material  is  kept  constantly  in  motion  by  the  wind.     Sometimes 


Sand  dune  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

it  is  blown  into  dome-shaped  hummocks  or  into  great  billows,  and  often 
into  long  ridges,  or  dunes,  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high. 

The  sand  grains  of  such  hills  are  blown  up  the  slope  exposed  to  the 
wind,  and  drop  down  on  the  sheltered 
slope;  thus  the  hill  gradually  ad- 
vances in  the  direction  in  which  the 
wind  blows.  In  regions  where  this 
movement  of  dunes  has  threatened 
the  destruction  of  fertile  farms,  the 
advance  is  checked  or  stopped  by  planting  the  dunes  with  coarse  grass 
or  other  vegetation.    Why  does  this  check  the  movement  ? 


Illustrating  movement  of  dunes. 


Atmospheric  Moisture.  From  every  moist  surface  in 
the  world,  but  mostly  from  the  extensive  surface  of  the 
sea,  water  is  nearly  always  rising  into  the  atmosphere  in 
the  form  of  invisible  vapor.  This  process  is  called  evap- 
oration. The  vapor,  mingled  with  the  air,  is  carried  about 
by  the  winds,  and  thus  much  of  that  from  the  sea  is 
brought  over  the  land.  The  impurities  in  water  are  left 
behind  when  it  evaporates;  therefore,  though  sea  water 
is  salt,  its  vapor  is  fresh  and  pure. 


14 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


When  vapor-laden  air  is  chilled,  part  of  its  invisible 
vapor  condenses  into  minute  drops  of  water,  which  can  be 
seen.  If  it  is  chilled  by  coming  into  contact  with  cold 
vegetation,  we  may  find  the  vegetation  covered  with  dew. 
What  is  dew  ?  When  the  vegetation  is  so  cold  that  the 
vapor  condenses  into  little  ice  crystals,  we  have  hoarfrost 
instead  of  dew.  If  the  vapor-laden  air  is  chilled  at  some 
distance  above  the  earth,  countless  tiny  drops  or  ice  crys- 
tals appear  in  the  atmosphere,  forming  a  cloud.  What  is  a 
cloud  called  that  hangs  close  to  the  earth?  If  the  air 
about  a  cloud  grows  warmer,  the  tiny  cloud  drops  or  crys- 
tals may  evaporate  and  disappear,  but  if  it  continues  cool 
they  may  unite  into  larger  drops  and  fall  as  rain,  or  into 
flakes  which  may  fall  to  the  earth  as  snow. 

Tests.  Define  atmospheric  agents;  erosion;  detritus;  soil;  talus; 
dunes.  How  is  detritus  formed?  How  are  soil  particles  disturbed? 
How  do  dunes  travel  ?  Define  vapor ;  evaporation  ;  dew ;  hoarfrost ; 
cloud;  mist;  rain;  gnow.  How  does  evaporation  affect  the  purity  of 
water  % 

Supplemental  Work.  Observe  at  a  road  cutting  or  new-dug  cellar 
the  layers  of  rock,  earth,  and  soil.  Bring  to  school  in  a  bottle  a  speci- 
men of  each  placed  in  order.  With  colored  crayons  sketch  the  layers 
which  you  saw.  Put  a  cold  plate  into  the  steam  from  boiling  water  and 
show  that  vapor  condenses  into  drops  when  chilled.  Boil  some  salt 
water.  Condense  some  of  the  vapor.  Taste  the  water  thus  obtained. 
Write  an  account  of  the  experiment  and  tell  what  it  proves. 

GROUND  WATER. 

Much  of  the  rain  or  snow  water  that  reaches  the  earth 
sinks  into  the  ground,  penetrating  not  only  the  detritus 
but  the  solid  rock  beneath,  often  to  a  great  depth.  An 
enormous  amount  of  water  is  thus  contained  in  the  ground. 
However  dry  the  soil  may  be  at  the  surface,  it  is  usually 
kept  moist  at  a  slight  depth  by  this  ground  water.  It  is 
the  ground  water  that  supplies  all  wells. 

Springs.  Part  of  the  ground  water  from  the  higher 
lands  creeps  very  slowly  through  the  earth  to  the  lower 
lands,  where  it  may  bubble  forth  at  the  surface  as  a  spring. 
The  distance  which  the  ground  water  thus  travels  may  be 
many  miles,  so  that  the  journey  may  require  weeks  or 
months.  If  no  rain  or  snow  should  fall  on  the  higher 
lands,  all  springs  would  gradually  decrease  and  finally  dry 
up.  Some  surface  springs  do  disappear  in  dry  seasons, 
but  the  flow  of  deeper-seated  springs  is  permanent,  be- 
cause the  ground  water  creeps  so  slowly  through  the  earth 
that  the  supply  is  not  exhausted  before  rains  or  snows 
replenish  it. 


HIGHER  LAND 


ARTESIAN 

WELL  ARTE8IAN 

LOWER  LAND  v  WELL 


Illustrating  artesian  wells. 

In  this  diagram  the  ground  water  from  the  higher  land  has  completely 
filled  the  pores  in  the  coarse-grained  rocks  beneath  the  neighboring 
lower  lands,  and  yet  no  springs  have  been  formed.  This  is  because  the 
slanting  layers  of  close-grained  rock  or  clay,  which  lie  above  the  porous 


rocks,  prevent  the  ground  water  from 
rising  to  the  surface.  In  such  re- 
gions an  artificial  outlet  to  the  porous 
rocks  is  sometimes  opened  by  bor- 
ing from  the  surface  of  the  lower 
land  through  the  close-grained  rock. 
The  pressure  of  the  water  in  the 
porous  rock  then  forces  the  water 
up  the  opening  to  the  surface,  thus 
forming  an  artificial  spring,  or  ar- 
tesian well. 

In  regions  where  the  rocks  are 
greatly  disturbed,  the  ground  water 
may  follow  some  folded  layer  of 
porous  rock  to  great  depths,  where 
it  comes  in  contact  with  heated  rocks, 
and  it  may  then  reach  the  surface  as 
a  hot  spring.  In  some  springs  the 
water  is  so  hot  that,  as  it  nears  the 
surface  and  the  weight  of  overlying 
water  becomes  less,  part  of  it,  at 
short  intervals,  flashes  into  steam, 
which  throws  the  rest  of  the  water 
high  into  the  air,  like  a  little  water 
volcano.  Such  spouting  hot  springs 
are  called  geysers. 

Work  of  Ground  Water. 

Ground  water  creeps  along  so 
slowly,  and  passes  through  such  small  pores  in  the  rocks, 
that  it  can  carry  along  with  it  very  little  detritus ;  hence 
spring  or  well  water  is  generally  clear  and  limpid,  though 
it  usually  contains  mineral  matter  which  it  has  dissolved 
from  the  rocks  through  which  it  has  passed. 

Some  spring  water  contains  so  much  dissolved  mineral 
matter  that,  though  clear,  it  has  the  taste  of  salt,  or  of 
iron,  or  of  sulphur.      Such  a  spring  is  called  a  mineral 


Old  Faithful  Geyser,  Wyoming. 


Hot  spring  deposits  of  basins  and  terraces,  Wyoming. 

spring.  Hot  water  dissolves  the  rocks  much  more  readily 
than  cold,  and  consequently  when  the  water  of  hot 
springs  reaches  the  surface  it  contains  much  mineral 
matter. 

While  such  waters  cool,  or  as  they  evaporate,  much  of  this  mineral 
matter  is  deposited  about  the  springs  in  the  form  of  basins,  terraces, 
icicle-like  pendants,  and  other  beautiful  forms,  which  are  often  highly 
colored. 


THE   WEARING  AWAY  OF   THE   J. AND. 


15 


Stalactites  and  stalagmites,  Luray  Cavern,  Va. 

Limestone  is  easily  dissolved,  and  in  regions  composed  of  such  rock 
the  underground  waters  often  dissolve  long  channels  and  make  great 
eaves  or  caverns  many  miles  in  extent.  Water  in  which  lime  is  dissolved 
trickles  through  the  roofs  of  these  caverns,  where  part  of  it  evaporates, 
while  the  rest  drops  down  to  the  floor  below  and  there  evaporates.  Does 
the  water  on  evaporating  carry  with  it  the  lime  it  contains?  Thus 
there  gradually  grows  downward  from  the  roof,  like  an  icicle,  a  stalactite 
of  glistening  lime  crystals,  while  from  the  floor  beneath  a  stalagmite 
gradually  grows  upward  until  they  may  meet  and  form  a  continuous 
column.  Occasionally  a  part  of  the  roof  of  a  cavern  breaks  in,  forming 
a  sink  hole  in  the  land  above.  In  time  the  entire  roof  falls  in,  trans- 
forming the  cavern  into  an  open  gorge  or  valley ;  but  over  this  a  small 
part  of  the  roof  may  remain  for  a  time  to  form  a  natural  bridge.  A  nat- 
ural bridge  may  also  be  formed  by  the  washing  away  of  softer  rock  from 
beneath  an  outflow  of  hard  lava. 

Iron,  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  other  metals  are  dissolved  from  the 
rocks  by  ground  water.  One  or  more  of  them  may  be  collected  and  de- 
posited in  a  rock  fault  or  fissure.  Some  of  the  richest  mines  in  the 
world  are  in  veins  formed  in  this  way. 

Tests.  Define  and  explain  the  formation  of  a  spring  j  an  artesian 
well ;  a  mineral  spring ;  a  geyser ;  a  vein ;  a  cave ;  a  natural  bridge. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out  about  the  geysers  of  Yellowstone 
Park,  and  about  Mammoth  Cave  or  Luray  Cavern. 


STREAMS  AND  LAKES. 

Streams  and  Stream  Basins.  Nearly  every  spring  is 
the  beginning,  or  source,  of  a  stream  of  water  which  flows 
from  it.  Water  flows  to  the  lowest  place  that  it  can 
reach,  and  therefore 
a  stream  usually  flows 
along  the  bottom  of 
a  valley,  the  two 
sides  of  which  slope 
downward  toward  the 
stream.  As  the  stream 
advances  it  is  generally 
increased  in  size  by 
other  streams,  or 
branches,  which  flow 
into  it  from  either  slope 
of  the  valley. 


The  Mississippi  river  system. 


Natural  bridge,  Yellowstone  Park,  Wyoming. 

These  branches  may  have  their  sources  in  springs,  or  in  banks  of  melt- 
ing snow ;  or  they  may  flow  only  during  wet  weather,  carrying  the  down- 
fall of  a  passing  shower  to  the  more  permanent,  spring-fed  streams. 

By  the  flowing  together  of  many  streams  as  they  ad- 
vance down  the  sides  of  a  great  valley,  thei-e  is  formed, 
along  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  a  mighty  stream,  or  river, 
which,  after  a  course  of  perhaps  hundreds  of  miles,  may 
finally  reach  the  sea.  A  river  with  all  its  branches  is 
called  a  river  system,  and  the  great  valley  drained  by  the 
system  is  called  the  river  basin. 

Lakes.  If  a  stream  meets  a  dam  or  barrier  across  its 
valley,  it  spreads  out  above  the  barrier,  forming  a  pond  or 
lake  of  still  water.  The  inlets,  or  streams  flowing  into  a  lake, 
must  raise  its  surface  until  the  water  can  escape  over  the 
barrier  before  an  outlet  stream  can  flow  from  it  down  the 
valley  below  the  dam. 

Water  is  almost  always  evaporating  from  the  surface  of  a  stream. 
When  a  stream  widens  to  form  a  lake  it  loses  much  water  by  evapora- 
tion. In  a  dry  region  a  lake,  before  its  surface  is  raised  high  enough  to 
form  an  outlet,  may  lose  as  much  water  by  evaporation  as  is  supplied  by 
its  inlets.  Such  a  lake  of  course  can  have  no  outlet.  In  general,  when 
we  find  a  lake  with  no  outlet  we  may  know  that  the  climate  is  very  dry 
and  evaporation  very  rapid.    Why  f 

We  have  learned  that  spring  water  usually  contains  minerals  which 
it  has  dissolved  from  the  rocks.  Salt  is  plentiful  in  the  rocks  and  is 
very  easily  dissolved,  and  hence  the  water  of  spring-fed  streams  nearly 
always  contains  this  mineral,  though  so  little  that  we  do  not  taste  it.  If 
a  lake  loses  water  by  evaporation  only,  the  salt  and  all  the  other  minerals 
brought  in  by  the  inlets  gradually  accumulate  until  the  lake  water  be- 
comes very  salt  and  bitter.  Therefore,  as  a  rule,  a  lake  that  has  no  outlet 
is  salt,  while  an  outlet,  by  preventing  much  mineral  matter  from  collecting  in  a 
lake,  usually  keeps  its  water  fresh. 

Some  rivers  flow  into  a  region  where  the  atmosphere  is  so  dry  and 
evaporation  so  rapid  that  the  rivers  grow  smaller  and  salty  as  they  ad- 
vance. They  may  finally  disappear  entirely,  while  a  coating  of  salt  is 
left  on  the  dry  beds  by  the  last  of  the  water  that  evaporates. 

Tests.  Define  stream;  source;  branch;  river;  system;  basin;  lake; 
inlet ;  outlet.    Explain  the  formation  of  salt  lakes. 

Supplemental  Work.  After  a  rain,  find  in  a  road  or  field  a  little  sys- 
tem of  streams;  sketch  it ;  and  model  its  basin. 


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THE  WEARING  AWAY  OF  THE  LAND. 


17 


DIVIDES  AND  SLOPES. 

Divides.  Any  region  from  which  the  land  slopes  down- 
ward in  two  opposite  directions  is  called  a  water  parting, 
or  divide,  because  the  water  which  falls  on  it  is  divided, 
part  of  it  flowing  down  one  slope  and  part  down  the  other. 
The  crest  of  every  mountain  range  is  a  divide,  and  so  too 

is  the  crest  of  every  im- 
perceptible swell  of  land 
— from  both  the  surface  water  flows  in  opposite  directions. 
Every  stream  basin  is  partly  surrounded  by  a  divide,  from 
which  water  flows  down  into  the  stream,  and  by  which  the 
basin  is  separated  from  adjoining  basins. 

Slopes.  The  streams  which  rise  in  the  great  highlands 
of  the  world  (p.  10)  flow  down  toward  the  Atlantic  and 
Arctic  oceans  on  one  side,  toward  the  Pacific  Ocean  on 
another  side,  and  toward  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  third 
side.  The  highland  region  may  therefore  be  said  to  sep- 
arate the  continental  plateau  into  three  main  slopes:  (1) 
the  Arctic-Atlantic  slope;  (2)  the  Pacific  slope;  (3)  the  In- 
dian Ocean  slope.  The  crest  or  meeting  of  any  two  of  these 
slopes  may  be  called  a  continental  divide. 

South  America.  Beginning  with  Cape  Horn,  trace  the  continental 
divide  through  South  America.  Which  slope  of  the  grand  division  is 
the  larger  ?  What  four  large  river  systems  drain  this  slope  ?  Why  are 
there  no  large  river  systems  on  the  Pacific  slope  ?  Do  you  find  any 
lakes  without  outlets  in  this  grand  division  ?    What  do  they  indicate  ? 

North  America.  Trace  the  continental  divide  through  North 
America.  Is  the  Arctic-Atlantic  slope  or  the  Pacific  slope  the  larger  ? 
Name  five  great  river  systems  on  that  slope.  Name  three  on  the  Pacific 
slope.  Why  are  these  smaller  than  the  systems  on  the  other  slope  ?  Do 
you  find  any  dry  regions  in  the  grand  division  ?   How  can  you  tell  them  ? 

Eurasia.  Trace  the  divide  at  the  top  of  the  Arctic- Atlantic  slope  of 
Eurasia.  Trace  the  divide  between  its  Pacific  and  Indian  Ocean  slopes. 
Which  of  these  three  slopes  is  the  largest  ?  Which  contain  the  largest 
river  systems  ?  Name  seven  river  systems  on  the  Arctic-Atlantic  slope ; 
four  on  the  Pacific ;  four  on  the  Indian  Ocean  slope. 

Salt  Lakes  of  Eurasia.  Do  you  find  any  lakes  in  Eurasia  which  have 
no  outlet  ?  Name  three  river  systems  which  flow  into  such  lakes.  These 
are  all  large  rivers,  and  the  lakes  which  they  form  are  the  largest  salt 
lakes  in  the  world.  Many  years  ago  Lake  Aral  overflowed  into  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  was  connected  by  a  strait  with  the  Black 
Sea  and  thus  with  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic.  But  a  slow  upheaval  of 
the  land  raised  a  barrier  between  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  and  the 
climate  is  so  dry  that  the  Volga  cannot  raise  the  surface  of  the.  Caspian 
to  the  top  of  this  barrier.  How  does  the  dry  region  of  Eurasia  compare 
in  size  with  the  dry  regions  of  America  ? 

Africa.  Trace  the  continental  divide  through  Africa.  Which  slope 
is  the  larger?  Which  contains  the  greater  river  systems?  Name  four 
river  systems  of  the  Atlantic  slope ;  one  system  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
slope.  What  large  part  of  Africa  is  quite  dry  ?  This  region  is  so  dry 
that  in  crossing  it  the  Nile  River  becomes  smaller  than  it  is  nearer  its 
source.    Explain  this. 

Australia.  Trace  the  continental  divide  through  Australia.  Which 
slope  is  the  larger  ?  What  river  system  is  on  this  slope  ?  As  a  whole,  is 
the  continent  moist  or  dry  ?    Why  do  you  think  so  ? 

After  comparing  the  slopes  of  each  of  the  grand  divisions,  state  which 
of  the  three  main  slopes  of  the  whole  continental  plateau  is  in  your  opin- 
ion the  largest.  Make  a  list  of  the  large  river  systems  on  each  of  the  main 
slopes  of  the  continental  plateau.    How  do  they  compare  in  number  ? 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  a  map  of  an  island  containing  several 
river  systems,  and  show  by  dotted  lines  the  divides  between  them. 
Model  two  river  systems  with  a  low  divide  between  them. 


WORK  OF   STREAMS. 

Valleys.  Running  water  is  constantly  picking  up  par- 
ticles of  earth  and  carrying  them  downward  iu  its  current. 
In  wet  weather  every  stream  is  made  more  or  less  muddy 
by  the  load  of  detritus  that  is  washed  into  it;  but  even 
in  dry  weather  some  particles  are  carried  or  rolled  along 
by  the  current. 

These  particles,  by  striking  against  the  sides  and  bottom 
of  a  stream,  gradually  wear  them  away,  even  if  they  are 
composed  of  the  hardest  rock;  thus  each  stream  is  con- 
stantly cutting  its  valley  deeper. 

Meanwhile  the  sides  of  every  valley  are  gradually  weath- 
ering into  detritus,  which  rolls  or  is  washed  down  into  the 
stream  below  and  by  it  is  carried  away ;  thus  the  valley 
gradually  grows  wider. 

These  processes  are  very  slow,  but  they  are  continuous 
and  have  been  going  on  for  untold  ages.  By  them  all  the 
valleys  in  the  world  have  been  hollowed  out  or  formed. 


Illustrating  the  erosion  of  valleys. 

Highland  Valleys.  A  swift  stream  can  carry  more 
detritus  and  wear  away  its  bed  more  rapidly  than  a 
stream  with  a  gentle  current.  In  highlands,  where  the 
slopes  are  steep,  the  streams  are  swift,  and  so  the  valleys 
are  generally  deep  and  narrow.  In  the  western  highlands 
of  our  country,  where  there  is  comparatively  little  rainfall, 
the  valleys  are  deepened  by  the  swift,  snow-fed  streams 


Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River. 

which  flow  in  them  from  the  mountains  much  faster  than 
they  are  widened  by  weathering.  Many  of  these  valleys 
thus  become  unusually  deep  and  narrow  and  have  steep 
or  precipitous  sides.     Such  valleys  are  called  canyons. 

Lowland  Valleys.    In  lowlands,  where  the  slopes  are 
usually  gentle,  the  cutting  power  of  streams  is  slight,  so 


18 


THE  EARTH  AS   A  WHOLE. 


A  wide  and  comparatively  shallow  valley,  New  York. 


the  valleys  may  be  widened  by  weathering  faster  than  they 
are  deepened  by  the  streams.  Hence,  in  lowland  regions, 
the  valleys  are  usually  wide  and  comparatively  shallow, 
with  gently  sloping  sides.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
regions  where  there  is  abundant  rainfall. 

Peneplains.  But  even  in  dry  highlands,  as  the  canyons  are  cut 
deeper  their  bottoms  approach  nearer  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  slope, 
current,  and  cutting  power  of  the  streams  in  them  become  gradually  less, 
until  the  further  deepening  of  the  canyon  may  proceed  even  more  slowly 
than  the  slow  weathering  of  its  sides.  Thus  the  canyons  will  grow  wider 
and  their  sides  less  steep,  until  eventually  all  the  highlands  may  be  re- 
duced to  lowlands,  with  wide  valleys  and  low  intervening  hills.  By  a 
continuation  of  the  same  processes  these  hills  would  be  gradually  worn 
away  and  the  region  finally  reduced  to  an  almost  level  surface,  but 
slightly  elevated  above  the  sea,  and  called  a  peneplain. 

It  is  thought  that  some  extensive  regions  in  the  eastern  part  of  our 
country  and  elsewhere  have  been  thus  worn  down  to  peneplains,  or 
nearly  so,  and  afterwards  upheaved.  It  is  certain  that  the  whole  land 
surface  of  the  world  would  finally  be  thus  reduced  by  the  atmospheric 
agents,  if  there  were  not  an  unknown  force  within  the  earth  by  which  the 
land  is  upheaved.  Some  regions  are  thus  upheaved  after  they  have  been 
worn  down,  other  regions  are  upheaved  as  fast  as  they  are  reduced,  and 
still  other  regions  are  raised  more  rapidly  than  they  are  worn  away. 

Tests.  How  are  valleys  deepened;  widened?  How  are  canyons 
made;  peneplains? 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  a  section  of  a  highland  valley.  Of  a 
lowland  valley.  If  a  stream  flows  east,  and  a  north  and  south  mountain 
range  begins  to  rise  across  its  course,  under  what  circumstances  will  the 
stream  change  its  course  ?  Under  what  circumstances  will  it  cut  a 
canyon  through  the  range  ?    Make  sketches  showing  the  two  cases. 


STREAM  FEATURES. 

Rapids  and  Cataracts.   In  cutting  down  its  bed  a  stream 
may  encounter  a  very  hard  layer  of  rock,  which  retards 


Illustrating  rapids  and  cascades. 


Illustrating  cataracts. 


the  deepening  of  the  valley  above  its  edge,  while  the  deep- 
ening of  the  valley  below  continues.     Thus  the  stream 


Lachine  Rapids,  St.  Lawrence  River. 

makes  a  sharp  descent  at  the  edge  of  the  hard  layer,  form- 
ing rapids  or  cascades,  or  perhaps  a  cataract. 

If  the  layer  of  rock  is  nearly  level,  the  more  rapid  wearing  away  and 
weathering  of  the  softer  rock  below  may  undermine  its  edge  and  form  a 
precipice  over  which  the  stream  leaps  as  a  true  waterfall,  or  cataract.  If 
the  stream  is  large  enough  to  remove  the  fragments  as  fast  as  they  fall 
from  the  overhanging  hard  layer,  the  cataract  continues,  but  retreats 
gradually  upstream.  Why?  If  the  fragments  accumulate  below  the 
fall,  however,  they  finally  convert  it  into  rapids  or  a  series  of  cascades. 

Sand  Banks  and  Bars.  When  a  swift  stream  enters  a 
more  level  region,  its  current  is  checked  and  can  no  longer 
carry  so  much  solid  material ;  it  therefore  drops  part  of  its 
load  of  detritus,  or  sediment.  Thus  at  the  mouths  of  steep 
mountain  valleys  there  are  frequently  formed  huge  cones 
of  sediment,  or  alluvium,  which  the  streams  have  brought 
down  from  the  valleys  above  but  cannot  carry  so  rapidly 
over  the  flatter  part  of  the  course  below. 

In  the  same  manner  steeply  sloping  branch  streams  may 
bring  down  sediment  more  rapidly  than  a  gently  sloping 
main  stream  can  carry  it  off.  Part  of  it  is  therefore  de- 
posited near  the  mouth  of  the  branch,  forming  temporary 
sand  banks  or  bars. 

Deltas.  When  a  stream  enters  a  lake  or  the  sea,  its  cur- 
rent is  stopped  and  it  drops  most  of  its  sediment.  If  the 
currents  in  the  lake  or  sea  are  too  feeble  to  carry  it  away, 
the  sediment  accumulates  as  a  very  flat  alluvial  cone  at  the 
mouth  of  the  stream.    Part  of  this  cone  may  reach  the  sur- 


A  small  cataract,  Alabama. 


THE   WEARING  AWAY  OF   THE  LAND. 


19 


face  of  the  water  and  be  gradually  converted  into  a  tri- 
angular tract  of  marshy  land.  This  impedes  the  outflow  of 
the  stream  and  divides  it  into  several  channels,  through 
which  it  empties.  Such  a  formation  is  called  a  delta,  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter  of  that  name  (A).  By 
the  continued  deposit  of  sediment  at  the  several  mouths, 
the  delta  is  continually  enlarging  and  advancing  further 
into  the  lake  or  sea. 

Flood  Plains.  The  rapid  melting  of  snow,  or  a  continued 
rainfall  in  its  basin,  swells  a  stream  far  beyond  its  usual 
limits,  causing  it  to  increase  'in  width,  and  producing  a 
flood,  or  freshet.  At  such  times  great  quantities  of  detritus 
are  washed  into  the  stream  and  so  load  it  with  sediment 
that  its  waters  become  exceptionally  muddy.  The  chan- 
nel, where  the  current  is  swiftest,  may  carry  its  part  of 
this  load,  but  toward  the  sides  of  the  flooded  stream,  where 
the  current  is  more  sluggish,  part  of  the  load  is  deposited 
on  the  valley  floor.    This  deposit  is  left  as  a  coating  of 


Illustrating  formation  of  flood  plains. 

fine  alluvium  when  the  stream  subsides  to  its  ordinary 
width.  Thus  is  gradually  built  up  in  time  of  flood  a  strip 
of  "bottom  land,"  or  a  flood  plain,  on  either  side  of  the  or- 
dinary channel  of  nearly  every  stream. 

The  flood  plain  deposit  may  become  quite  deep,  and  is  generally  very 
fertile,  but  it  is  subject  to  overflow,  for  it  cannot  be  built  higher  than 
the  highest  floods,  and,  being  composed  of  alluvium,  it  wears  away 
rapidly  in  time  of  low  water. 

The  surface  of  the  flood  plain  is  nearly  level,  but  is  often  highest  near 
the  channel  of  the  stream.  Thus  swampy  places  and  sluggish  streams, 
or  bayous,  are  formed  during  low  water  along  the  lower,  outside  edges 
of  flood  plains. 

Oxbow  Loops.  A  sand  bar,  formed  in  the  low-water 
bed  of  a  stream,  partly  blocks  the  channel  and  forces  the 
current  against  one  of  the  banks  of  the  flood  plain.  The 
soft  alluvial  bank  is  easily  washed  away,  and  thus  a  slight 
bend  in  the  stream  is  formed  (1).  The  current  always 
flows  against  the  outside  of  a  bend  and  thus  gradually  in- 
creases it,  while  sediment  is  deposited  in  the  more  slug- 
gish water  along  the  inside  bank  (2).  Thus  streams  cut 
for  themselves  very  crooked  low-water  channels  which 
meander  back  and  forth  across  the  flood  plain. 

In  the  lower  courses  of  many  large  rivers  which  have 
wide  and  deep  flood  plains,  these  bends  eventually  take  the 
form  of  great  oxbow  loops  (3).  Finally  a  cut-off  is  formed 
at  the  narrowing  neck  of  the  loop  (4),  which  then  becomes 


Illustrating  formation  of  oxbow  loops. 


the  main  channel.  The  ends  of  the  old  channel  then  gradu- 
ally fill  up  with  sediment,  and  the  deserted  part  of  the  loop 
becomes  a  crescent-shaped  pool  or  lake  of  stagnant  water  (5). 

Tests.  Define  and  explain  the  formation  of  rapids  and  cascades; 
cataracts;  sediment;  alluvium;  sand  bar;  delta;  flood  plain;  bayou; 
oxbow  loop. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  a  diagram  and  explain  why  a  ledge  of 
hard  rock  across  a  stream  retards  the  deepening  of  the  valley  above. 


GLACIERS. 


Aletsch  glacier,  Switzerland. 

Formation.    In  polar  regions,  and  in  high 
in  all  latitudes,  the  climate  throughout  the  y 
that  more  snow  falls  than  can  be  melted, 
accumulates  and  becomes  hundreds  or  e 
feet  deep,  so  that  its  weight  packs  the 
mass  into  solid  ice,  and  forces  this  ice 
inch  by  inch,  down  the  slope  of  the  land.    S 
of  slowly  moving  ice  is  called  a  glacier.  J% 

In  Greenland  and  in  other  regions  near  the  poles,  glaciers  cover  the 
entire  surface  of  the  land  with  a  continuous  or  "  continental "  ice  theet 
which  moves  downward  into  the  sea,  where  great  fragments,  sorrre  of 
them  as  big  as  a  small  mountain,  break  off  and  float  away  as  icebergs. 

In  regions  where  the  lowlands  are  warm  and  where  snow  accumulates 
only  near  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  the  glaciers  occupy  the  upper 
valleys  only,  creeping  down  the  mountain  sides,  and  many  of  them  melt- 
ing away  entirely  before  they  reach  the  sea. 


Iceberg  floating  near  Newfoundland. 


20 


THE  EARTH  AS  A   WHOLE. 


Work  of  Glaciers.  As  a  glacier  creeps  forward,  the  de- 
tritus under  it  —  sand,  stones,  and  huge  masses  of  rock  — 
becomes  imbedded  in  the  ice  and  is  dragged  forward  over 
the  solid  rock  beneath,  scratching,  grooving,  polishing,  and 
wearing  away  its  surface,  while  the  fragments  are  them- 
selves worn  round  and  smooth  or  ground  to  powder. 
Thus  glaciers  in  their  movement  excavate  rock  basins, 
widen  and  deepen  valleys,  and  lower  and  round  the  out- 
lines of  hills  over  which  they  travel.  Much  detritus  rolls 
or  is  washed  upon  the  surface  of  a  valley  glacier  from  the 
sides  of  the  mountains  which  rise  above  it. 

An  enormous  quantity  of  rocky  material  is  thus  carried 
by  glaciers.  If  a  glacier  descends  to  the  sea  this  material 
may  be  borne  away  by  icebergs  and  distributed  over  the 
sea  bottom  when  they  melt ;  but  if  a  glacier  does  not 
reach  the  sea,  its  rocky  load  is  deposited  along  its  melting 
end  as  a  great  irregular  sheet  of  sand,  gravel,  bowlders, 
and  clay,  called  glacial  drift. 

If  the  melting  end  of  a  glacier  remains  long  at  the  same  place,  the  drift 
accumulates  into  an  irregular  range  of  hills  called  a  terminal  moraine. 


Bowlders  deposited  by  an  old  valley  glacier  in  California. 

The  Glacial  Period.  Thousands  of  years  ago  there  was  a  long  period 
of  time,  called  the  glacial  period,  when  the  climate  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere was  colder  than  at  present,  and  when  the  glaciers  were  much  more 
extensive.  The  valley  glaciers  were  larger  than  they  now  are,  and  glaciers 
were  formed  where  none  now  exist.  From  the  highland  north  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  the  Laurentian  glacier  then  moved  outward  in  all  direc- 
tions and  covered  North  America  with  a  continental  ice  sheet  as  far  south 
as  the  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers,  while  another  continental  glacier  moved 
over  most  of  northern  Europe  from  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

When  these  great  glaciers  finally  melted  away  they  left  their  work  so 
deeply  impressed  upon  the  surface  of  the  land  that  it  is  yet  plainly  visible. 

Much  of  each  region  is  deeply  covered  with  glacial  drift ;  with  many 
huge  rounded  bowlders  which  are  unlike  any  of  the  neighboring  rock 
and  must  have  been  brought  by  the  ice  from  a  distance ;  and  with  thou- 
sands of  peculiar  whaleback-shaped  hills,  or  drumlins  ;  there  are  many 
great  and  small  rock  basins  hollowed  out  by  the  moving  ice  sheet ;  and 
the  solid  rock  of  the  region,  wherever  exposed,  is  found  to  be  covered 
with  glacial  scratches  and  grooves. 

In  the  hollows  formed  by  the  glacier,  and  in  the  old  valleys  in 
which  the  drift  formed  dams,  many  lakes  collected.  Some  of  these  have 
been  entirely  filled  up  by  sediment  from  their  inlets,  and  others  have 
been  gradually  emptied  by  the  cutting  down  of  their  outlet  streams. 
Thousands,  however,  remain  and  make  the  sites  of  the  old  Laurentian 
and  Scandinavian  glaciers  the  great  lake  regions  6i  the  world. 

Tests.  How  are  glaciers  formed  t  How  can  their  former  presence  in 
a  region  be  detected  t    Define  glacial  drift ;  terminal  moraine ;  drumlin. 


A  drumlin  near  Amherst,  Massachusetts. 

WAVES  AND   TIDES. 

Waves.  The  wind  blowing  over  any  sheet  of  water 
throws  its  surface  into  waves.  Light  breezes  cause  mere 
ripples,  but  storm  winds  may  heave  the  surface  of  deep 
water  into  billows  as  high  as  a  three-story  house. 

The  waves  raised  by  a  storm  in  one  part  of  the  sea  may  finally  spread 
to  the  shores  hundreds  of  miles  away,  and  as  there  is  seldom  a  time  when 
strong  winds  are  not  blowing  in  some  part  of  the  sea,  its  surface  is  nearly 
always  heaving  and  tossing  in  waves. 

Waves  do  not  affect  the  water  to  any  great  depth,  but  when  a  wave 
enters  shallow  water  its  lower  part  drags  on  the  bottom,  while  the  upper 
part,  rushing  onward,  rolls  over  or  breaks,  thus  forming  a  breaker.  Little 
waves  break  very  close  to  the  shore  line,  but  big  waves  drag  on  the 
bottom  in  much  deeper  water,  and  hence  may  break  at  some  distance 
from  the  land. 

Tides.  Since  waves  depend  upon  the  wind,  they  are 
very  irregular  —  at  times  high  and  fierce,  at  times  low  and 
gentle.  There  is  another  movement  of  the  sea,  however, 
which  is  very  regular.  On  the  seacoast  the  water  for  sev- 
eral hours  gradually  rises,  at  some  places  becoming  many 
feet  deeper;  then  for  several  hours  it  gradually  falls  to 
about  its  former  level,  when  it  again  slowly  rises,  and  so 
on.  This  slow  and  regular  rise  and  fall  of  the  sea  is  called 
the  tide.    The  rise  is  flood  tide,  and  the  fall,  ebb  tide. 

Like  the  earth,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars  possess  gravity  ;  that 
is,  each  has  the  power  to  pull  loose  objects  toward  itself.  The  pull  is 
strongest  on  objects  near  these  bodies,  but  it  also  affects  objects  at  any 
distance.  Thus  the  earth  itself  is  affected  by  the  gravity  of  both  the  sun 
and  the  moon.  Though  the  attraction  of  the  sun  on  the  whole  earth 
is  much  stronger  than  that  of  the  ntoon,  still  the  moon  is  so  much  nearer 
us  that  its  effect  is  more  apparent.  It  causes  the  surface  of  the  sea  to 
rise  in  two  low  but  broad  tidal  swells  or  waves,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
earth. 


moonQ 


As  the  earth  rotates,  these  waves  travel  over  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
keeping  a  little  behind  the  moon.  When  the  crest  of  one  of  these  waves 
reaches  the  coast,  it  is  high  tide ;  when  the  trough  between  the  waves 
reaches  the  coast,  it  is  low  tide. 

While  the  earth  is  rotating,  the  moon  is  moving  forward  in  the  sky,  so 
that  the  earth  has  to  turn  for  nearly  twenty-five  hours  to  bring  the  same 


THE  WEARING  AWAY  OF  THE  LAND. 


21 


point  under  the  moon  again,  and  during  this  time  two  complete  tidal 
waves  pass  the  point. 

Wind  waves  affect  the  surface  water  only,  and  make  little  or  no  cur- 
rent; but  in  following  the  moon  around  the  earth  the  tidal  waves  cause 
powerful  currents  which  extend  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  sea. 

In  the  open  sea  the  tidal  wave  is  so  low  that  its  passage  is  impercep- 
tible, but  as  it  advances  between  the  headlands  of  a  coast  the  shallowing 
water  and  the  approaching  shores  force  the  wave  to  become  much  higher. 
At  the  heads  of  some  narrowing  bays  it  is  as  much  as  50  or  60  feet 
high ;  oh  more  open  coasts  heights  of  from  6  to  12  feet  are  usual. 

In  some  estuaries  and  river  mouths  the  drag  of  the  heightened  tidal 
wave  on  the  bottom  causes  the  wave  to  for-m  a  breaker,  called  a  bore, 
which  rushes  rapidly  up  the  river  and  is  very  dangerous  to  shipping. 

Work  of  Waves  and  Tides.  The  force  with  which 
waves  dash  upon  the  coast  is  very  great.  If  the  shore  is 
high  and  rocky,  the  waves  pick  up  fragments  of  loosened 
rock  and  hurl  them  against  the  cliffs,  thus  loosening  other 
fragments  and  undermining  and  rapidly  cutting  back  the 
front  of  the  cliffs.  The  fragments,  pounded  against  the 
cliffs  or  rolled  backward  and  forward  upon  one  another, 
are  worn  away,  first  to  pebbles  and  then  to  fine  sand. 


Bass  Head,  on  the  high  and  rocky  coast  of  Maine. 

Some  of  the  sand  is  carried  out  into  deep  water,  where 
it  settles  to  the  bottom,  making  its  slope  gentler.  But 
much  of  the  sand  made  in  this  way  on  exposed  and  rocky 
headlands  is  carried  by  tidal  currents  and  by  the  wash 
of  the  waves  into  sheltered  coves,  or  to  straight  stretches 
of  low  and  gently  sloping  coast.  There  it  is  thrown  upon 
the  shore  to  form  a  smooth  sand  beach.  Such  a  beach  is 
really  a  protection  to  the  shore,  and  it  is  more  lasting  than 
a  high  and  rocky  coast,  which  receives  the  full  force  of  the 
waves. 


i£= «= 


tnll-i^ 


Thus  the  action  of  the  waves  tends  to  make  the  coast  more/ 
uniform,  by  cutting  back  and  reducing  rocky  headlands,  and 
by  building  out  the  shore  lines  of  the  bays. 

Barrier  Beaches.  Great  storm  waves  break  at  some  distance  out 
from  the  shore  line  of  a  low  and  uniform  coast.  The  saud  they  deposit 
where  they  break  forms  a  shoal,  or  bank,  which  is  gradually  built  up 
into  a  bar  and  by  continued  deposit  may  at  last  reach  the  surface,  form- 
ing a  long  line  of  narrow,  sandy  islands,  or  barrier  beaches,  fringing 
the  coast  and  separated  from  it  by  a  shallow  lagoon. 

The  lagoon,  however,  is  gradually  tilled  up  by  the  sediment  carried 
into  it  by  the  streams  from  the  mainland,  and  by  the  remains  of  vegeta- 
tion that  grows  along  its  margins.  It  is  thus  converted  into  a  marsh 
and  then  into  solid  land,  while  another  line  of  barrier  beaches  may  form 
outside ;  thus  the  coast  grows  outward. 


Spits  and  Sandy  Hooks.  Tidal  currents  carrying  sand  are  constantly 
flowing  along  the  coast  close  to  the  shore.  Such  currents  flowing  out 
of  a  bay  are  frequently  turned  to  the  right  or  the  left  by  meeting  other 
currents  flowing  along  the  coast.  Between  such  currents  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  still  water,  in  which  sand  from  both  currents  is  deposited. 
Thus  may  be  built  out  into  the  bay,  from  one  side  of  its  mouth,  a  long, 
narrow  spit  or  sandy  hook.    Many  low  capes  are  formed  in  this  way. 

Coral  Reefs  and  Islands.  Where  the  sea  water  is  warm,  and  not 
too  deep,  and  where  currents  bring  plenty  of  food,  little  animals  called 
coral  polyps  live  in  great  colonies  attached  to  the  sea  bottom.  The 
polyp  extracts  from  the  sea  water  some  of  its  dissolved  lime,  and  this  goes 
to  enlarge  the  stony  skeleton  by  which  the  animal  is  attached  to  the 
rocky  base  of  the  colony. 

When  a  polyp  dies  its  stony  skeleton  remains  as  an  addition  to  the 
base,  while  young  polyps  appear  upon  the  base  like  buds,  on  a  tree. 
These  grow  and  die,  leaving  their  skeletons  behind,  and  are  replaced 
by  other  polyps.  Thus  by  the  growth  and  death  of  countless  polyps  the 
rocky  base  of  the  colony  may  gradually  be  built  up  to  the  surface  of  the 
sea  to  form  a  coral  reef,  which  by  the  beach-forming  action  of  waves  and 
currents  may  be  raised  above  the  water  to  form  a  coral  island. 


Long  Beach,  Florida. 


Great  Barrier  coral  reef,  Australia. 


22 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


ro .  *   --     h.y 


Such  coral  islands  often  take  the  form  of  rings  of  low  land  wholly  or 
partly  surrounding  shallow  lagoons ;  such  a  ring-shaped  coral  island  is 
called  an  atoll.  Coral  reefs  which  fringe  the  warmer  coasts  of  the  con- 
tinents may  eventually  become  part  of  them,  as  do  barrier  beaches. 

Tests.  Define  and  explain  waves ;  breakers ;  tides ;  flood  tide ;  high 
tide ;  ebb  tide ;  low  tide ;  a  bore ;  a  barrier  beach ;  a  sandy  hook ;  a  coral 
reef.    Why  is  high  tide  at  any  spot  a  little  later  every  day  ? 

Supplemental  Work.  Bead  or  recite  Ingelow's  "High  Tide  on 
the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,"  Kingsley's  "Sands  of  Dee,"  Tennyson's 
"  Crossing  the  Bar,"  Holmes's  "  Chambered  Nautilus." 


THE  ROCKY  LAYERS  OF  THE  LAND. 

Thus  the  atmospheric  agents  and  moving  water  are  con- 
stantly wearing  away  the  surface  of  the  land  and  trans- 
porting the  material  to  some  lake  or  to  the  sea,  where 
it  is  deposited  on  the  bot- 
tom in  nearly  level  layers 
of  sand,  gravel,  or  mud. 

The  gravel  or  sand,  being  heav- 
ier, sinks  sooner  and  is  deposited 
nearer  the  shore,  while  the  finer 
particles  which  compose  mud  are 
carried  farther  away  from  land. 
But  nearly  all  the  sediment  brought 
down  to  the  sea  is  deposited 
within  a  few  hundred  miles  of 
the  coast,  and  with  it  are  mixed 
the  bones  of  animals  washed  from 
the  land,  or  of  sea  animals  that  die 
and  sink  from  the  water  above. 
Farther  from  land  almost  the  only 
deposits  are  the  shells  of  sea  ani- 
mals. There  are  millions  of  them, 
however,  many  of  them  very  tiny, 
and  their  deposit  gradually  makes 
a  thick  layer  of  slime,  or  ooze,  on 
the  deep  sea  floor. 

Year  after  year  layer  is  deposited  on 
layer,  until  the  weight  above,  aided  pos- 
sibly by  heat  from  within  the  earth, 
changes  the  lower  layers  into  stone 
again,  in  which  the  forms  of  the  shells 
and  bones  are  preserved  as  fossils.  The 
sandy  deposits  near  the  shore  become 
layers  of  sandstone;  the  deposits  of 
mud  and  clay  become  layers  of  shale  or  soapstone;  and 
the  oozes  become  different  kinds  of  limestone  and  chalk, 
which  are  often  little  more  than  a  mass  of  tiny  fossils. 

By  gradual  upheaval  these  layers  of  hardened  sediments  on  the  sea 
bottom  become  land,  and  by  the  pressure  and  heat  produced  in  the  up- 
heaval they  may  be  hardened,  crystallized,  and  changed  still  further  — 
thus  limestone  may  become  marble;  sandstone,  quartzite;  and  shale, 
£iate.  Some  of  the  more  deeply  buried  layers  may  even  be  melted  and 
changed  to  granite  or  to  lava. 


.    l'.'^Q,      .'1 


-^"s^'SV 


Ooze  magnified. 


m 


In  this  way  have  been  formed  nearly  all  the  a  lid  rocks  which  we  see. 
At  some  time  in  the  past  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed  was 
part  of  an  old  land  surface ;  it  was  worn  away  and  became  soft  sediment 
on  the  sea  floor ;  it  slowly  hardened  to  rock  and  was  upheaved  to  become 
the  present  land,  which  is  now  being  worn  away  again. 

Peat  and  Coal.  Certain  kinds  of  moss  and  other  plants 
grow  thickly  on  the  surface  of  fresh  water  near  the  shore 
in  many  shallow  ponds  and  lakes.      By  the  interlacing 


of  their  roots  they  may  in  time  cover  the  entire  surface  of 
the  water  with  a  floating  mat  of  vegetation.  The  thick 
mat  is  increased  by  the  yearly  growth  on  top,  while 
from  beneath  it  pieces  of  dead  vegetable  matter  fall  to 
the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and  accumulate  as  a  dark  mudlike 
mass  called  muck  or  peat.  This  may  eventually  fill  the  lake, 
converting  it  into  a  peat  swamp,  or  bog.  The  muck,  being 
partly  decayed  vegetable  matter,  makes  a  good  fertilizer, 
and  when  thoroughly  dried  is  also  used  for  fuel. 

Thousands  of  years  ago  great  swamps,  somewhat  like 
the  present  peat  bogs,  but  containing  a  vastly  more  luxu- 
riant vegetation,  existed  in  many  lowlands.  After  their  for- 
mation they  were  slightly  depressed  below  the  sea  and  were 
covered  by  layers  of  mud  and  sand.  The  sediment  gradu- 
ally hardened  to  layers  of  rock,  and  the  peat  to  beds  of 
the  black  stonelike  substance  which  we  call  coal. 

As  the  buried  peat  slowly  changed  it  gradually  became  lignite,  or 
brown  coal,  which  is  much  better  fuel  than  peat,  while  with  greater  age 
it  is  changed  to  true  bituminous  or  soft  coal,  which  is  still  better  fuel.  If 
these  beds  are  greatly  folded  in  upheaval,  the  heat  and  pressure  hasten 
their  change  into  coal,  and  may  change  them  into  hard  or  anthracite  coal 
—  or  even  into  graphite,  of  which  lead  pencils  are  made. 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas.  Vegetable  or  animal 
matter,  which  ages  ago  was  deeply  buried  under  sediments, 
has  sometimes  been  gradually  changed,  not  into  coal,  but 
into  rock  oil,  or  petroleum,  and  into  natural  gas.  Both  of 
these  substances  also  make  good  fuel.  They  are  obtained 
by  boring  wells  through  the  overlying  layers  of  rock. 

Tests.  How  does  the 
ocean  deposit  near  the 
shore  differ  from  the 
deep  sea  deposit  ?  Why? 
Explain  the  formation 
of  sandstone ;  quartz- 
ite ;  shale ;  slate  ;  lime- 
stone ;  marble.  Of  peat ; 
lignite; bituminous  coal; 
anthracite  coal.  Of  pe- 
troleum ;  natural  gas. 


ra*S 


Supplemental  Work. 

Bring  to  school  speci- 
».^fy^t-'ivSB^BiBBI^^UtJiVkfl7^«wBBEBB      mens  of  one  kind  of  rock 
Fossiliferous  limestone.  and  of  one  kind  of  min- 

eral formed  from  animal 
or  vegetable  matter.  Label  each  specimen,  and  keep  the  collection  in 
the  schoolroom.  Write  a  short  story  of  the  formation  of  one  of  the 
specimens. 

TOPICS   ON  LOWERING  OF  THE  LAND   SURFACE. 

I.  Erosion.  Definition.  Wind :  erosive  work.  Atmospheric  moist- 
ure :  source ;  forms ;  erosive  work.  Ground  water :  source ;  uses ;  erosive 
work.  Streams :  source  ;  deepening  work  ;  broadening  work.  Glaciers : 
source  ;  motion  ;  erosive  work.     Waves :  erosive  work. 

II.  Transportation.    Wind.     Water.    Ice.    Direction. 

III.  Deposition.  Dunes.  Stream  deposits:  alluvial  cones;  sand 
bars;  flood  plains;  deltas.  Spring  deposits.  Cave  deposits.  Veins. 
Glacial  drift.  Shore  deposits :  beaches  ;  bars ;  sandy  hooks ;  coral  reefs. 
The  layers  of  rocks :  of  rocky  origin ;  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin. 

IV.  Features  of  Surface  Waters.  Springs :  origin ;  classes ;  uses. 
Streams :  source ;  bed  ;  divides ;  flood  plains ;  falls ;  meanders ;  bayous ; 
mouths.  Lakes  :  origin  ;  inlets ;  outlets ;  classes.  Glaciers :  regions ; 
classes. 


CLIMATE. 


23 


CLIMATE. 

SEASONS. 

Revolution.  While  the  earth  is  turning  on  its  axis  it  is 
also  moving  forward  in  an  almost  circular  path,  or  orbit, 
around  the  sun.  This  movement  of  the  earth  is  called  its 
revolution.  "What  is  the  difference  between  a  rotation  and 
a  revolution  of  the  earth?  How  long  does  it  take  the 
earth  to  rotate  once  on  its  axis?  The  time  required  by 
the  earth  to  make  one  complete  revolution  around  the 
sun  is  called  a  year. 

The  orbit  is  really  elliptical,  but  differs  so  slightly  from  a  circle  that 
it  is  most  accurately  represented  as  circular. 

Inclination  of  Axis.  As  the  earth  travels  around  its 
orbit,  the  axis  always  points  in  nearly  the  same  direction. 


The  axis  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  orbit;  it  leans,  or 
inclines,  about  23£  degrees  from  the  perpendicular,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram  above. 

Effects.  It  is  because  of  this  inclination  of  the  axis  that 
the  hours  of  sunrise  and  sunset  change  from  day  to  day, 
and  that  one  half  of  the  year  is  warmer  than  the  other  half. 


MARCH  EQUINOX 


SEPTEMBER  EQUINOX 


Length  of  Days  and  Nights.  The  diagram  above  shows  the  position 
of  the  north  pole  with  respect  to  the  edge  of  the  sun-lighted  half  of  the 
earth  each  month  in  the  year.  Name  the  months  in  which  the  pole  is 
exactly  on  the  line  between  the  lighted  and  the  dark  half  of  the  earth. 
At  these  times  the  sun  is  exactly  over  the  equator ;  hence  the  sunlight 
extends  to  the  same  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  or  to  both 
poles.  As  the  earth  rotates  in  this 
position  the  sun  rises  and  sets  at 
six  o'clock,  and  the  days  and  nights 
are  everywhere  of  equal  length ; 
hence  these  dates  are  called  equi- 
noxes (equal  nights). 

The  days  and  nights  are  always 
of  equal  length  on  the  equator,  but 
elsewhere,  except  at  the  equinoxes,  At  the  March  equinox. 


they  are  never  equal.  During  what  months  is  the  north  pole  in  the 
lighted  hemisphere  ?  During  what  months  is  it  in  the  dark  hemisphere  ? 
Thus,  at  the  poles  there  are  six  months  of  continuous  daylight,  fol- 
lowed by  six  months  of  continuous  darkness.  When  the  earth  passes 
either  equinox,  the  poles  gradually  recede  from  the  sunrise  and  sunset 
line  for  three  months,  and  then  approach  and  reach  it  again  three  months 
later  at  the  other  equinox. 

When  is  the  north  pole  farthest  within  the  lighted  hemisphere  ?  When 
farthest  within  the  dark  hemisphere  ?  At  these  dates  the  day  and  night 
are  of  most  unequal  length. 


p.      *  3  £ 


HX° 


£ SU  N'S 


PERPENDICULAR  RAY 


RAYS 


About  June  si. 


About  December  si. 


About  June  21  the  north  pole  is  23j°  within  the  lighted  hemisphere ; 
the  perpendicular  rays  of  the  sun  fall  on  places  23i°  north  of  the  equator. 
How  far  within  the  dark  hemisphere  is  the  south  pole  ?  As  the  earth 
rotates  in  this  position,  the  sun  rises  and  sets  at  six  o'clock  at  the 
equator,  and  the  days  and  nights  there  are  equal,  but  the  sun  rises  earlier 
and  earlier  at  places  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  north  pole,  and  later  and 
later  at  places  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  south  pole ;  hence  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  the  days  are  longer  than  the  nights.  Are  they  then  longer 
or  shorter  than  the  nights  in  the  southern  hemisphere  ?  Places  within 
23|°  of  the  north  pole  are  in  the  sunlight,  while  places  within  23|°  of 
the  south  pole  are  in  darkness,  throughout  an  entire  rotation  of  the  earth. 

About  December  21  the  north  pole  is  within  the  dark,  and  the  south 
pole  within  the  lighted  half  of  the  earth,  while  the  perpendicular  rays  of 
the  sun  fall  on  places  23j°  south  of  the  equator.  From  the  diagram  ex- 
plain what  effect  this  position  has  upon  the  length  of  the  days  and  nights 
in  the  northern  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  Seasons.  Why  is  it  usually  warmer  during  the  daytime  than  at 
night  ?  Do  we  live  north  or  south  of  the  equator?  Compare  the  lighted 
part  of  the  northern  hemisphere  about  June  21  with  its  lighted  part  about 
December  21.  Does  the  northern  hemisphere  receive  more  sunshine  in 
June  or  in  December?  In  which  of  these  months  is  the  weather  warmer 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  ?  Why  ?  In  which  of  these  months  is  the 
weather  warmer  in  the  southern  hemisphere  ?    Why  ? 

Thus  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  causes  summer 
and  winter.  When  it  is  winter  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
what  season  prevails  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ?  At  the 
equinoxes  just  one  half  of  each  hemisphere  is  in  the  warm 
sunshine.  At  these  times  occur  spring  and  autumn,  when 
the  temperature  is  intermediate  between  those  of  summer 
and  winter. 

Tests.  Define  the  earth's  orbit.  What  is  its  shape  ?  Define  revolu- 
tion ;  a  year ;  equinoxes ;  summer ;  winter ;  spring  and  autumn.  What 
two  causes  combine  to  produce  changes  in  the  length  of  day  and  night  ? 

Supplementary  Work.  Darken  the  schoolroom,  and,  by  means  of 
a  ball  and  a  lamp,  illustrate  the  position  of  the  earth  at  the  equinoxes ; 
about  June  21 ;  about  December  21.  Eead  or  recite  "  They  come !  The 
Merry  Summer  Months,"  Motherwell ;  "  The  First  Snowfall,"  Lowell ; 
"  The  Voice  of  Spring,"  Hemans ;  "  The  Death  of  the  Flowers,"  Bryant. 


ZONES  AND  HEAT  BELTS. 

The  Tropics.     At  the  March  equinox  the  sun  is  directly 
overhead  at  the  equator.    By  about  June  21  the  perpen- 


24 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


dicular  rays  have  advanced  into  the  northern  hemisphere. 
On  what  parallel  do  they  then  fall  ?  Here  they  turn  back 
and  recede  southward.  When  do  they  again  fall  on  the 
equator?  Where  do  the  perpendicular  rays  fall  about 
December  21  ?  There  they  turn  back  and  advance  north- 
ward, reaching  the  equator  in  March.  Hence  the  parallels 
23i°  north  and  south  of  the  equator  are  called  tropics,  from 
a  word  meaning  "  to  turn" — the  northern  one  is  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer ;  the  southern,  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

The  Polar  Circles.  The  parallel  23J°  from  either  pole 
incloses  a  region  which  at  one  time  in  the  year  is  in 
darkness  during  a  complete  rotation  of  the  earth,  and  at 
another  time  is  in  sunshine  during  a  complete  rotation. 
These  parallels  are  called  polar  circles — the  northern  one, 
the  Arctic  Circle;  the  southern,  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

The  Zones.  Is  it  usually  warmer  when  the  sun's  rays 
fall  from  high  in  the  sky,  as  they  do  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  or  when  they  are  nearly  horizontal,  as  at  sunrise  and 
sunset?  The  sun's  rays  are  always  perpendicular  some- 
where between  the  tropics,  and  that  part  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  quite  warm  throughout  the  year;  hence  the 
strip  between  the  tropics  is  called  the  torrid,  or  hot,  zone. 
Because  the  sun's  rays  do  not  reach  the  regions  within  the 
polar  circles  during  part  of  the  year,  and  during  the  re- 
mainder are  nearly  horizontal,  these  regions  are  nearly 


THESE  RAY8  ALWAYS  HORIZONTAL 


THESE^AYS  ALWAYS  HORIZONTAL 


always  cold  and  are  called  the  frigid,  or  cold,  zones.  The 
regions  between  the  torrid  and  the  frigid  zones  are  called 
temperate  zones. 

How  do  the  temperate  zones  compare  in  temperature  with  the  torrid 
zone ;  with  the  frigid  zones  ?  Still  there  are  parts  of  the  temperate 
zones  which  at  times  are  hotter  than  parts  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  there 
are  parts  which  at  times  are  colder  than  parts,  of  the  frigid  zones.  So 
the  tropics  and  polar  circles  do  not  form  the  boundaries  of  the  true 
heat  belts. 

This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that,  as  the  sun  advances  to  its  June 
position  over  the  northern  tropic,  the  boundaries  of  all  the  heat  belts  also 
advance  northward ;  and  as  the  sun  retreats  to  its  December  position 
over  the  southern  tropic,  the  boundaries  of  all  the  heat  belts  retreat 
southward  with  it. 

Other  reasons  for  the  irregular  boundaries  of  the  true  heat  belts  are 
the  irregular  distribution  of  land  and  water  over  the  earth,  and  the  dif- 
ferences in  elevation  of  the  land  surface. 

Effect  of  Land  and  Water.  The  sea  does  not  change 
greatly  in  temperature  during  the  year.  The  temperature 
of  the  land,  however,  changes  greatly  in  latitudes  where 


the  days  and  nights  are  of  very  unequal  length.  The 
land  is  slightly  warmer  than  the  sea  in  summer,  but 
much  colder  in  winter. 

The  upper  part  of  the  atmosphere,  resting  on  the  part  beneath,  com- 
presses it  and  makes  it  denser;  thus  the  atmosphere  is  densest  at  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  but  on  high  mountain  tops  is  so  rare,  or  thin,  that  it 
will  scarcely  support  life. 


Illustrating  comparative  density  of  the  air. 

The  heat  rays  of  the  sun  pass  easily  through  the  rare  part  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and,  as  there  is  scarcely  any  air  to  warm,  they  lose  but  little  of 
their  heat  there.  They  pass  through  the  lower,  denser  part  with  in- 
creasing difficulty,  however,  and  give  to  it  about  half  of  their  heat 
before  they  reach  the  earth's  surface ;  hence  the  rays  themselves  warm 
the  lower  air  more  than  the  upper  air. 

The  heat  rays  which  reach  the  solid  land  can  penetrate  it  to  a  very 
slight  depth,  and  thus  quickly  make  its  surface  even  warmer  than  the 
lower  air.  This  excess  of  heat  tries  to  escape  back  through  the  atmos- 
phere, but  it  penetrates  the  dense  air  above  lowlands  very  slowly  and 
heats  it  still  further.   > 

At  night,  however,  the  supply  of  sun  heat  being  cut  off,  the  rare 
upper  air  permits  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  dense  lower  air,  which  in 
turn  robs  the  land  surface  of  its  heat.  Thus  during  the  long  nights  of 
winter  the  land  quickly  loses  the  heat  that  accumulates  at  its  surface 
during  the  long  days  of  summer. 

The  sun's  heat  rays  which  reach  the  sea  penetrate  and  warm  it  to 
a  greater  depth  than  the  land  is  warmed,  and  the  warm  water  may 
move  to  cooler  regions  in  waves  or  currents.  Hence  the  surface  of  the 
sea  is  not  warmed  so  quickly  or  so  greatly  as  the  land.  But  neither  does 
it  cool  so  quickly  at  night,  for  as  the  surface  water  cools  it  is  replaced  by 
warmer  water  from  below. 

Effect  of  Elevation.  At  great  elevations  the  air  is  so 
rare  that  it  is  but  slightly  warmed  either  by  the  sun's  rays 
or  by  the  heat  escaping  from  the  earth.  It  thus  happens 
that  the  climate,  or  prevailing  weather,  of  highlands  is 
colder  than  that  of  lowlands. 

Thus  in  the  torrid  zone,  although  snow  is  never  seen  in  the  lowlands, 
the  tops  of  high  mountains  bear  snow  banks  that  are  never  entirely 
melted  away. 

But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  mountain  summits  are  always  cold. 
For  the  very  reason  that  the  thin  air  cannot  take  much  heat  from  the 
sun's  rays,  the  sunshine  itself  on  mountains  is  hotter  than  on  lowlands ; 
but  at  night,  or  in  the  shade,  the  weather  is  cold. 

True  Heat  Belts.  Why  do  the  true  heat  belts  differ 
from  the  zones?  The  boundaries  of  the  true  heat  belts 
in  January  and  in  July  are  shown  on  the  following  maps. 
Each  boundary  line  is  an  isotherm;  that  is,  a  line  passing- 
through  places  having  the  same  temperature.  The  bound- 
ary of  the  cold  belt  has  about  the  temperature  of  freezing 
water  (30°) ;  that  of  the  hot  belt  has  the  comfortable  tem- 
perature of  a  sitting  room  (70°). 


CLIMATE. 


25 


with  their  July  positions.    Explain  the  differ- 
ences in  position. 

In  the  lowest  pair  of  maps  the  boundaries 
of  the  heat  belts  in  both  January  and  July 
are  drawn,  in  order  to  show  the  temperature 
changes  of  each  region  during  the  whole  year. 
What  parts  of  the  land  surface  of  the  world  are 
always  hot?  What  parts  have  a  temperate 
winter  and  a  hot  summer  ?  What  parts  of  the 
land  surface  are  always  temperate?  What 
parts  have  a  temperate  summer  and  a  cold  win- 
ter? What  parts  have  a  hot  summer  and  a 
cold  winter  ?  What  part  of  the  world  is  always 
cold? 

Tests.  Name  the  zones;  their  boundaries. 
Define  zone;  tropic;  rare;  dense;  isotherm. 
How  is  heat  distribution  affected  by  land  and 
water;  by  elevation?  Why  do  the  true  heat 
belts  differ  from  the  zones? 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  maps  of  the 
hemispheres,  showing  the  tropics,  polar  circles, 
and  true  heat  belts  in  summer  and  in  winter. 
Read  "  The  Discoverer  of  the  North  Cape,"  by 
Longfellow ;  and  "  Tropical  Vegetation  in  South 
America,"  by  Kingsley,  in  Barnes's  Fifth  Reader. 


WINDS. 

When  a  fire  is  burning  on  the  hearth  the  air 
moves  toward  it  along  the  floor  of  the  room 
and  rises  up  the  chimney  with 
the  smoke.  In  the  same  way 
the  air  moves  toward  the  bot- 
tom of  the  chimney  of  a  lighted 
lamp  and  when  heated  rises 
through  the  chimney. 

Like  nearly  all  other 
substances,  the  air  ex- 
pands and  occupies  more 
space  when  it  is  heated.  If  the  at- 
mosphere over  any  region  becomes 
warmer  than  that  over  surrounding 
regions,  it  expands  upward  and  be- 
comes deeper  over  the  hot  region. 
The  upper  air  therefore  flows  off  side- 


•*  WARMER 


'EftRTHS"  SURF ACE 


Where  are  the  sun's  rays  perpendicular  about  July  1?  At  this 
season  the  accumulation  of  heat  in  the  great  land  masses  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  Eurasia  carries  the  edge  of  the  hot  belt  far  northward.  Where 
does  the  heat  equator,  or  line  of  greatest  heat,  lie  farthest  north  at  this 
season?  Where  is  it  nearest  the  true  equator?  What  heat  belt  sur- 
rounds the  north  pole  at  this  season  ?  The  south  pole  ?  As  July  is  in 
the  winter  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  hot  belt  in  that  hemisphere 
shrinks  in  width,  while  the  south  cold  belt  is  greatly  enlarged.  As  the 
surface  of  the  southern  hemisphere  is  mostly  water,  the  boundaries  of 
its  heat  belts  are  comparatively  regular. 

Compare  the  January  positions  of  the  heat  equator  and  the  heat  belts 


wise  from  above  the  warmer  region, 

while  surface  currents  of  cooler  and 

heavier  air  flow  in  below  and  force  the  warmer  and  lighter 

air  upward.    Such  surface  currents  of  air  are  called  winds. 

Trade  Winds.  Over  the  heat  equator  the  air  is 
always  warmer  and  more  expanded  than  that  nearer 
the  poles,  and  hence  throughout  the  year  there  are 
nearly  constant  winds  blowing  toward  the  heat  equator 
from  some  distance  on  both  sides.  These  winds  are 
especially    well    marked    on    the    level    surface    of    the 


26 


THE  EARTH  AS   A  WHOLE. 


open  oceans.    They  are  gentle,   steady  winds,   and  are 
called  trade  winds. 

Because  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  the  moving  air  turns  out  of  a 
straight  course  as  it  advances,  turning  to  the  right  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, but  to  the  left  in  the  southern.  The  trade  winds,  therefore,  ap- 
proach the  heat  equator  obliquely.  What  is  their  direction  north  of 
the  equator?  South  of  the  equator? 

Belts  of  Calms.  The  northeast  and  southeast  trade 
winds,  when  they  meet,  are  forced  slowly  upward  by  the 
cooler  and  heavier  air  behind.  The  rising  air  expands  and 
cools.  What  becomes  of  its  vapor?  (p.  14.)  The  place 
of  meeting  of  the  trade  winds  is  therefore  marked  by  a 
narrow  belt  of  light  breezes  or  calms,  in  which  there  is 
almost  constant  cloudy  and  rainy  weather.  This  belt  is 
called  the  equatorial  calms.    Find  it  on  the  map. 

At  the  outer  edge  of  the  trade  winds,  in  both  the 
northern  and  the  southern  hemisphere,  is  a  narrow  belt 
or  region  in  which  the  air  is  slowly  settling  down  from 
the  upper  atmosphere,  and  becoming  warmer  as  it  de- 
scends. Why  are 
these  not  rainy 
belts?  These  belts 
are  consequently 
marked  by  calms 
and  clear  weath- 
er. They  are 
called  the  tropical 
calms. 

Prevailing  West- 
erly Winds.  Be- 
yond the  tropical 
calms  the  general 
movement  of  the 
atmosphere  is  to- 
ward the  poles  — 
from  the  southwest  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from 
the  northwest  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Winds  gradually  acquire  the  temperature  of  the  surface  over  -which 
they  blow.  The  prevailing  westerlies  occur  in  latitudes  where  the  land 
is  warmer  than  the  sea  in  summer,  and  cooler  than  the  sea  in 
winter.  These  winds,  therefore,  tend  to  equalize  the  temperature  on 
the  west  coasts  of  the  continents  in  the  temperate  zones  —  making  the 
summers  cooler  and  the  winters  warmer  than  they  are  on  the  east  coasts. 

Cyclones.  The  winds  of  the  temper- 
ate zones,  however,  are  rendered  very  ' 
irregular  by  being  drawn  into  vast 
whirls  called  cyclones,  which  are  con- 
stantly forming  and  moving  eastward 
in  various  parts  of  these  zones. 

Because  of  the  earth's  rotation,  cyclones  on 
the  same  side  of  the  equator  always  whirl  in 
the  same  direction,  but  on  the  other  side  of  the 
equator  they  whirl  in  the  opposite  direction,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram.  Do  the  winds  move  from 
or  toward  the  equator  on  the  east  side  of  cy- 
clones?   On  the  west  side? 

As  the  winds  whirl  around  the  center  of  the 
cyclone,  they  get  nearer  and  nearer  to  it,  and 


travel  faster  and  faster  until  they  may  become  storm  winds.  In  the 
center  of  the  cyclone  the  air  rises  and  rapidly  cools,  and  on  the  east  side 
of  the  cyclone  the  air  also  cools,  because  it  is  blowing  away  from  the 
equator.  Hence  the  center  and  east  side  of  cyclones  are  generally 
marked  by  clouds  and  rain  or  snow.  The  western  side  of  the  cy- 
clone, in  which  the  wind  is  whirling  from  a  colder  region  toward  the 
equator,  is  marked  by  clearing,  cool,  or  cold  weather.     Why? 

Nearly  all  of  our  ordinary  storms  are  simply  the  passing  of  such 
cyclones.  These  great  atmospheric  whirls  form  so  frequently  that  the 
regions  of  the  westerly  winds  are  the  stormiest  in  the  world.  The  whirls 
move  eastward  for  great  distances,  sometimes  traveling  as  much  as 
halfway  around  the  earth,  before  they  finally  die  away. 

Monsoon  Winds.  Owing  to  the  shifting  of  the  heat 
equator,  and  of  the  belts  of  calms,  with  the  change  of 
seasons,  much  of  the  land  in  the  torrid  zone  is  north  of 
the  equatorial  calms  in  January,  and  south  of  them  in 
July.  As  the  prevailing  winds  blow  obliquely  toward 
these  calms,  it  follows  that  in  many  torrid  lands  the 
winds  blow  from  one  direction  in  summer  and  from  an- 
other direction  in  winter.     This  seasonal  change  in  the 

direction  of  the 
wind  is  strongly 
marked  in  south- 
ern Asia  and  east- 
ern Africa,  and  on 
those  coasts  the 
prevailing  winds 
are  called  mon- 
soons, from  a  word  ' 
meaning  "season." 

Where  does  the  heat 
equator  lie  in  January 
in  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere? (p.  25.)  In 
winter  the  regular 
northeast  trades  pre- 
vail over  the  northern 
Indian  Ocean.  Why? 
Where  is  the  heat  equator  over  the  eastern  hemisphere  in  July?  In 
summer  the  southeast  trade  winds  sweep  north  of  the  true  equator,  and, 
being  turned  to  the  right  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  reach  the  coast 
of  Asia  as  a  steady  southwest  monsoon.  This  blows  for  several  months, 
until  the  heat  equator  gradually  approaches  the  true  equator  in  the  early 
fall.  Then  the  northeast  monsoon  (or  regular  trade  wind)  prevails, 
while  the  heat  equator  is  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Tests.  Define  and  explain  winds;  trade  winds;  equatorial  calms; 
tropical  calms ;  prevailing  westerlies ;  cyclones ;  monsoons. 

Supplemental  Work.  By  holding  narrow  strips  of  paper  over  a 
lighted  lamp,  show  that  heated  air  is  lighter  than  the  colder  air  around 
it.  Read  pp.  207-229  Waldo's  "  Elementary  Meteorology."  Read  or  recife 
"  The  Hurricane,"  by  Bryant ;  "  The  Wind  on  a  Frolic,"  by  Wm.  Howitt. 


RAINFALL. 

Cause.  Where  does  most  of  the  vapor  in  the  atmosphere  come 
from  ?  (p.  13.)  What  causes  it  to  change  into  cloud,  rain,  or  snow  f 
The  winds  are  the  great  vapor  carriers,  and  hence  the  rainfall  of  the 
world  depends  largely  upon  the  winds.  But  the  winds  do  not  yield 
cloud  and  rain  unless  the  vapor  they  carry  is  chilled.  The  vapor  may 
be  chilled  (1)  by  rising  higher  in  the  atmosphere,  or  (2)  by  being  carried 
into  a  colder  region.     The  term  rainfall  usually  includes  snowfall  also. 


CLIMATE. 


27 


Rainfall  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  Bo  the  trade  winds  blow 
toward  warmer  or  toward  colder  regions  ?  Does  this  indi- 
cate that  the  trade-witid  regions  are  dry,  or  rainy  ?  As  the 
trade  winds  advance  over  the  oceans  they  grow  warmer  and 
thirstier,  and  evaporate  so  much  water  that  the  sea  is  more 
salty  in  these  regions  than  elsewhere.  How  is  the  vapor 
chilled  and  condensed  into  rain  in  the  equatorial  calms? 
Over  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  this  belt  never  moves 
far  from  the  equator,  and  so  much  fresh  water  pours  down 
as  rain  in  that  region  that  the  sea  there  is  less  salty  than  in 
the  trade-wind  belts  on  either  side.  In  which  zones  does 
most  of  the  land  receive  a  heavy  or  a  moderately  heavy 
rainfall?"  In  which  zones  is  the  rainfall  on  the  land  less 
than  moderate  ? 

Over  the  land  the  equatorial  rain  belt  shifts  north  and  south  through 
nearly  the  entire  width  of  the  torrid  zone,  and,  as  it  passes,  it  gives  a 
season  of  ample  rains  to  the  greater  part  of  the  land  surface  in  the  torrid 
zone.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  zone  the  rainy  season  occurs  in  the 
January  half  of  the  year ;  but  in  the  northern  part,  in  the  July  half.  "Why  ? 
In  the  central  parts  of  the  zone  there  are  apt  to  be  two  rainy  seasons  in 
the  year  —  one  when 
the  rain  belt  sweeps 
northward  in  .  our 
spring,  and  another  as 
it  sweeps  southward  in 
our  fall. 

Where  the  vapor- 
bearing  trade  winds 
are  forced  to  rise  over 
highlands,  a  heavy 
rainfall  results.  Why  ? 
Compare  the  rain  map 
(p.  26)  with  the  map 
on  p.  16,  and  give  rea- 
sons for  the  heavy 
rainfall  on  the  north- 
east and  southeast 
coasts  of  South  Amer- 
ica; in  the  upper  Ama- 
zon valley;  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  When  does  the  heavy  rainfall  occur  in  east  Africa? 
In  southern  and  southeastern  Asia  ?  Why  do  the  East  Indies  have  a 
heavy  rainfall  ?  Do  the  heat  equator  and  equatorial  rain  belt  ever  reach 
the  coast  of  South  America  near  the  southern  tropic?  (map,  p.  25.)  Are 
winds  from  the  sea  forced  up  the  west  slope  of  the  highlands  in  that 
region  ?    Why  does  that  coast  receive  little  rain  ? 

Rainfall  of  the  Temperate  Zones.  Do  the  prevailing 
winds  of  the  temperate  zones  advance  into  warmer  or  into 
colder  latitudes?  These  winds  cool  quite  slowly.  They 
start  from  the  tropical  calms  as  dry  winds,  and  do  not 
yield  much  rain  until  they  are  chilled  either  in  cyclones  or 
by  rising  over  highlands.  Thus  highlands  and  cyclones 
are  the  rain  producers  of  the  temperate  zones. 

Compare  the  maps  on  pp.  26  and  16.  Why  do  the  northwest  coast 
of  North  America  and  the  southwest  coast  of  South  America  receive 
abundant  rainfall?  Why  is  there  little  rainfall  in  the  region  east  of 
these  coasts?  The  eastern  half  of  North  America  gets  its  rainfall  by 
the  cyclone  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic.  Western 
Europe  gets  its  moderate  rainfall  chiefly  from  cyclones.  Farther  east 
the  rainfall  is  light  because  the  region  is  so  far  from  the  sea  that  the 
winds  contain  little  vapor. 

What  is  the  general  movement  of  the  air  in  the  tropical  calm  belts  ? 
What  kind  of  weather  prevails  there  ?    Can  you  tell  why  there  is  little 


rain  in  regions  near  the  tropics  in  north  and  south  Africa,  southwest 
Asia,  Australia,  and  western  North  America  ? 

Tests.  Explain  the  existence  of  rainy  or  dry  weather  accompanying 
equatorial  calms ;  trade  winds  ;  tropical  calms ;  monsoons ;  the  parts  of 
a  cyclone.     Give  effects  of  surface  on  rain  distribution,  with  examples. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bead  or  recite  "  Rain  in  Summer,"  and  "  The 
Rainy  Day,"  by  Longfellow. 

OCEAN  CURRENTS. 

In  nearly  every  part  of  the  sea  there  are  slow  movements, 
or  currents,  of  the  surface  water.  The  currents  move  in 
the  general  directions  of  the  prevailing  winds,  and  are 
generally  believed  to  be  caused  chiefly  by  them. 

The  trade  winds  drive  the  equatorial  waters  of  all  the 
oceans  westward,  while  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  urge 
the  sea  water  eastward  in  temperate  latitudes ;  and  thus  on 
each  side  of  the  equator,  in  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  the  water  is  thrown  into  a  great  whirl  or 
eddy  around  the  region  of  tropical  calms.  In  what  di- 
rection do  these 
whirls  move  on  the 
side  toward  the 
equator  ?  In  what 
part  of  these  oceans 
do  they  move 
away  from  the 
equator  ?  In  what 
part  of  the  oceans 
do  they  move  to- 
ward the  equator  ? 
A  branch  from 
the  north  Atlantic 
eddy  follows  the 
coast  of  Europe  in- 
to the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  sweeps  around 
its  basin,  returning  southward  near  the  coast  of  Greenland. 
South  of  the  equator  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  there  is  a 
great  eddy  similar  to  those  in  the  south  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans,  but  north  of  the  equator  the  currents  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  move  generally  eastward  during  half  of 
the  year,  and  generally  westward  during  the  Other  half. 
During  which  half  do  you  think  they  move  eastward? 

Wherever  the  ocean  eddies  move  from  the  equator  their  water  is 
warmer  than  that  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  and  that  part  of  the  whirl 
is  called  a  warm  current ;  but  that  part  of  the  whirl  which  moves  toward 
the  equator  is  a  cold  current,  because  it  is  cooler  than  the  surrounding 
water. 

Currents  affect  the  climate  of  the  neighboring  coasts  chiefly  by  warming 
or  cooling  the  winds  which  blow  from  them  to  the  coasts.  Which  coasts 
of  the  continents  are  most  affected  by  the  ocean  currents  in  the  temperate 
zones  ?    Which  in  the  torrid  zone  ? 

Names  of  Currents.  Various  parts  of  these  great  surface  eddies  of  the 
oceans  have  been  given  special  names.  What  is  the  part  of  all  the  great 
eddies  called  which  moves  west  near  the  equator?  What  is  the  part 
of  the  north  Atlantic  eddy  north  of  the  West  Indies  called?  This  is 
because  part  of  it  appears  to  flow  out  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  between 
Florida  and  Cuba.  The  narrowness  of  this  channel  makes  the  Gulf 
Stream  here  one  of  the  most  rapid  of  the  ocean  currents.  Is  it  a 
warm  or  a  cold  current  1    What  is  the  corresponding  part  of  the  north 


28 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


Pacific  eddy  flowing  past  the 
Japanese  Islands  called  f  Its 
Japanese  name  is  Kuroshiwo, 
or  "Black  Stream."  Is  it  a 
warm  or  a  cold  current  1 
What  is  the  eastern  part  of 
the  whirl  in  the  north  Pacific 
called?  The  eastern  part  of 
the  south  Pacific  whirl  ?  Are 
these  warm  or  cool  currents  ? 

Tests.  Name,  describe, 
and  explain  the  chief  currents 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  the  Pa- 
cific ;  the  Indian ;  the  Antarc- 
tic. Explain  the  effect  of 
ocean  currents  upon  climate. 

Supplemental  Work.  Us- 
ing the  maps  on  pp.  26  and 
27,  write  a  comparison  of  the 
climates  of  the  eastern  and 
western  shores  of  the  northern  Pacific. 
Ocean." 


Eead  Byron's  "  Address  to  the 


TOPICS  ON  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HEAT  AND  MOISTURE. 

I.  Heat.  Day  and  night :  cause ;  differences  in  length.  Seasons : 
causes;  names;  times.  Zones:  boundaries;  names;  modifications — by 
altitude,  by  land  and  water,  by  earth's  position,  by  winds,  by  currents. 

II.  Rain.  Cause.  Influence  of  winds :  trade  winds ;  prevailing  west- 
erlies; calms  —  equatorial,  tropical;  cyclones;  monsoons.  Influence  of 
seasons.    Effect  of  surface:  mountains;  land  and  water;  plains. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  LIFE. 

Plants  and  animals  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  world,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  warm,  moist 
regions.     Thus  there  is   an   irregular  but  gradual   de- 
crease in  life  forms  from  the 
moist    equatorial    lowlands 
toward    the   cold    polar   re- 
gions, and  also  toward   the 
cold  summits  of  high  moun- 
tain ranges. 

Dense  Forests.  In  what 
zone  are  most  of  the  dense 
forests!  How  great  is  the 
rainfall  of  these  forest  re- 
gions? This  forest  vegeta- 
tion is  wonderfully  dense 
and  luxuriant.  The  great 
trees  stand  close  together, 
and  are  often  covered  and 
interlaced  with  hundreds  of 
climbing  vines  and  air  plants. 
As  there  is  no  cold  season, 
vegetation  grows  through- 
out the  year  and  is  always 
green.  The  leaves  of  the 
plants  are  very  large,  like 

those   of   the  palms.  Dense  equatorial  forest 


Open  Forests.  In  what  zone  are  most  of  the  open  for- 
ests? How  great  is  the  rainfall  of  these  forest  regions? 
The  forest  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zones  is  much  less 
dense  and  luxuriant  than  that  of  the  torrid  zone. 

Only  such  plants  live  in  the  temperate  zones  as  can 
ripen  their  fruit  during  the  warm  season.  They  either 
stop  growing  or  die  during  the  cold  season. 

Most  of  the  broad-leafed  trees,  such  as  the  oaks  and  maples,  lose  their 
leaves  in  autumn,  while  nearly  all  the  evergreen  trees  have  needle-like 
leaves,  as  the  pines,  or  scale-like  foliage,  as  the  cedars. 

The  animals  of  these  zones  are  adapted  for  the  changing  seasons  by 
having  heavier  coats  of  hair,  fur,  or  feathers  in  winter,  and  some  of  them 
lie  dormant  or  asleep  in  sheltered  places  throughout  the  cold  season. 

Grassy  Lands.  Are  there  any  grassy  lands  in  the  tor- 
rid and  temperate  zones?  Are  they  mostly  in  regions  of 
heavy  or  of  light  rainfall  ?  In  both  zones,  where  the  rain- 
fall is  too  light  or  too  unevenly  distributed  through  the 
year  for  forests,  it  may  yet  be  sufficient  for  a 
growth  of  grass,  shrubs,  and  other  low  plants. 
In  such  places  are  found  open  grassy  lands. 

These  are  called  prairies,  steppes,  llanos,  and  pampas,  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  They  are  often  very  fertile, 
and  when  the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  make  excellent  farms. 
The  animal  life  of  these  regions  is  different  from  that  of 
the  forests — for  animals  adapted  to  live  on  or  among 
trees  cannot  secure  food  in  open  lands. 

Tundras.  In  the  frigid  zones,  it  is  so 
cold  that  comparatively  few  kinds  of  plants 
and  animals  can  live.  Throughout  this  re- 
gion the  soil  is  frozen  to  a  great  depth.  Only 
its  surface  thaws  in  summer,  and,  as  the  water 
cannot  sink  through'  the  frozen  soil  beneath, 
a  wide  strip  of  country  along  the  Arctic  coast 
of  America  and  Eurasia  is  thus  converted 
at  that  season  into  a  great  swamp,  or  tundra. 

The  life  forms  are  specially  adapted  to  live  through 
the  long  winters.  Most  of  the  animals  have  coats  of 
thick  fur  or  coverings  of  fat  to  keep  them  warm.  Though 
some  kinds  of  flowering  plants  manage  to  blossom  and 
fruit  during  the  short  summer,  the  vegetation  consists 
mostly  of  mosses  and  lichens  and  a  few  dwarfed  trees. 


LIFE. 


29 


Deserts.  What  besides  warmth  is  necessary  for  plant 
life?  A  very  dry  region,  even  if  it  is  warm,  can  have 
little  or  no  vegetation.     Such  a  region  is  a  desert. 

On  the  rainfall  map  (p.  26)  find  the  warm  regions  having  little  rainfall. 
Compare  these  with  the  deserts  on  the  vegetation  map.  Are  there  deserts 
in  all  the  grand  divisions  ?    Where  are  the  most  extensive  deserts  ? 

The  few  plants  of  deserts  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  a  dry  climate, 
having  hard,  close  bark  and  small  leaves  through  which  their  juices  can- 
not evaporate  easily.  Many,  like  the  cactus,  are  armed  with  thorns  or 
spikes.  These  prevent  plant-eating  animals  from  touching  the  plants 
and  breaking  the  bark  which  preserves  the  sap  from  evaporation.  The 
animals,  therefore,  must  be  specially  adapted  to  procure  food  in  these 
dry  regions. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bring  to  school  leaves  of  several  varieties  of 
evergreen  and  of  broad-leaved  trees  growing  in  your  own  neighborhood. 
Mount  them  on  cardboard  and  label  them.  Find  out  about  the  palm  or 
the  banana;  its  distribution,  appearance,  and  use.  Find  out  about  the 
cactus,  the  maguey,  the  acacia,  and  their  uses. 

GREAT  LIFE  REGIONS. 

Barriers.  As  there  are  differences  in  heat  and  mois- 
ture, so  are  there  differences  in  the  life  forms  of  different 
regions,  each  form  being  specially  fitted,  or  adapted, 
to  the  climate  and  other  conditions  of  its  own  region. 
Animals  are  free  to  roam,  birds  to  fly,  and  the  seeds  of 
plants  are  scattered  far  and  wide  by  winds,  currents,  and 
animals ;  yet,  sooner  or  later,  both  animals  and  seeds  are 
likely  to  reach  a  region  in  which  they  are  unfitted  to  live, 
and  which  thus  acts  as  a  natural  barrier  to  their  further 
diffusion. 

The  greatest  natural  barrier  for  land  life  is  the  sea,  though  a  wide  des- 
ert, or  a  high  mountain  chain,  is  quite  as  impassable  to  many  animals 
and  plants.  But  a  barrier  may  consist  simply  of  a  difference  in  climate, 
the  absence  of  proper  food,  or  the  presence  of  enemies  which  the  animal 
or  plant  cannot  withstand. 

Great  Life  Regions.  The  deserts  and  the  mountain 
ranges  that  lie  between  the  torrid  and  north  temperate 
heat  belts,  together  with  the  sea,  are  such  important  bar- 
riers to  the  spread  of  animal  and  plant  life  that  they  may 
be  taken  to  mark  the  division  of  the  continental  plateau 
into  six  great  life  regions.  In  each  of  these  tl  3  plants 
and  animals  differ  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  fr>m  those 
of  all  +he  other  regions. 

Name  the  six  great  life  regions.  What  forms  the  barri'  oetween  the 
South  American  and  the  North  American  life  region '     Between  the 


African  and  the  Eurasian  region  f  In  these  transitional  regions  life 
forms  are  found  somewhat  resembling  some  of  those  in  the  neighboring 
regions,  but  strangely  changed  and  adapted  to  fit  them  to  their  dry  sur- 
roundings. The  barrier  between  the  Eurasian  and  the  Oriental  region 
is  the  edge  of  the  Eurasian  highland.  In  the  west  it  is  sharply  marked, 
for  there  the  edge  of  the  highland  rises  into  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
the  loftiest  range  in  the  world.  Farther  east  there  is  a  broad  transi- 
tional region,  where  the  barrier  is  chiefly  the  difference  in  climate  between 
the  temperate  and  torrid  heat  belts.  What  is  the  barrier  between 
the  Oriental  and  Australian  life  regions? 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "How  Plants  Travel"  in  Johonnot's 
"Glimpses  of  the  Animate  World,"  "Migration  of  Birds"  in  Lock- 
wood's  "  Animal  Memoirs,"  Part  II. ;  Dana's  "  Plants  and  their  Children." 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  REGION. 

The  Australian  is  the  most  peculiar  of  the  life  regions. 
Nearly  all  of  the  native  four-footed  animals  either  are 
hatched  from  eggs  or  are  so  helpless  at  birth  that  for 
some  time  they  are  carried  in  a  pouch  or  fold  of  skin  on 
the  breast  of  the  mother. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  such  pouched  animals.  Many  of  them  are 
of  the  kangaroo  type ;  others,  the  koala  and  the  Tasmanian  devil,  are 
bearlike  animals  about  the  size  of  a  poodle  dog ;  another,  the  Tasmanian 
wolf,  is  as  big  as  a  Newfoundland  dog.  Still  others  are  somewhat  like 
squirrels,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  or  moles  in  size  and  habits.  The  kangaroos 
are  leapers,  having  short,  weak  fore  legs  and  long,  stout  hind  legs,  upon 
which  they  squat  upright  and  with  which  they  leap  over  the  ground. 
The  largest  kangaroo,  when  sitting  upright,  is  as  tall  as  a  man,  but  some 
kinds  are  as  small  as  rats. 


Life  regions. 


30 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


m 


cassowmiyI 


7/       *  : 


Some  animals  of  the  Australian  region. 

The  egg-laying  mammals  are  the  echidna,  a  kind  of  ant-eater  hav- 
ing a  beaklike  snout  and  a  body  covered  with  thick  spines ;  and  the 
duckbill,  which  has  a  bill  like  a  duck's,  fur  like  a  mole's,  and  webbed 
feet.  The  duckbill  lives  mostly  in  the  water,  making  its  burrow  in  the 
banks  as  a  muskrat  does.  The  echidna  and  the  duckbill  are  each 
about  as  large  as  a  terrier  dog. 

Among  the  birds  are  the  large  ostrichlike  running  birds  —  the  emu, 
the  cassowary  and  the  kiwi ;  the  brush  turkeys,  which  do  not  sit  on 
their  eggs,  but  after  heaping  up  great  mounds  of  brush  over  them 
leave  them  to  hatch  themselves ;  the  lyre  bird,  so  named  from  the 
form  of  its  tail;  and  the  bower  birds,  which  build  a  covered  play- 
ground or  bower  which  they  decorate  with  shells  or  colored  stones. 

Among  the  more  peculiar  plants  are  the  leafless  she  oak  or  beef- 
wood  trees ;  flowering  but  leafless  acacia  trees,  which  produce  a  bark 
.  excellent  for  tanning ;  and  many  kinds  of  eucalyptus  trees.  Some  of 
these  are  among  the  tallest  trees  in  the  world ;  others  are  peculiar  in 
having  several  forms  of  leaf  on  the  same  tree ;  and  on  many  the 
leaves  grow  with  their  edges  instead  of  their  sides  toward  the  sun. 
The  tropical  forests  along  the  north  coast  contain  many  palms  and 
other  plants  similar  to  those  of  southern  Asia. 

Recently  man  has  introduced  into  Australia  sheep, 
cattle,  rabbits,  and  other  kinds  of  animals.     These  thrive 
wonderfully,  showing  that  other  than  pouched  animals 
might  have  lived  in  this  region  had  not  some  barrier  pre- 
vented them  from  reaching  it. 

What  Australian  Life  indicates.  Egg-laying  mam- 
mals are  now  found  nowhere  else  in  the  world,  and  the  opos- 
sums of  America  are  the  only  pouched  animals  now  found 
outside  of  the  Australian  region.  Fossils,  however,  of  such 
.animals  are  found  buried  in  the  rocks  of  Eurasia,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  ages  ago  they  were  the  only  kind 
of  mammals  in  the  world.  At  that  time  Australia  is 
thought  to  have  had  a  land  connection  with  Eurasia  and 
to  have  been  stocked  with  these  animals.  Afterward  it 
became  separated  from  Eurasia  by  an  impassable  barrier 
of  sea,  thus  preserving  its  ancient  animal  forms,  while 
in  the  larger  land  masses  these  early  animals  were  re- 
placed by  more  highly  organized  descendants. 

Supplemental  WorK.  Bring  to  school  a  picture,  an  anecdote,  or  a  de- 
scription of  one  plant  or  animal  peculiar  to  the  Australian  region.  Write 


next  day  a  reproduction  of  an  anecdote  or  description  brought  by  one 
of  your  schoolmates. 

The  Cyclopedia  and  books  on  natural  history  contain  these  descrip- 
tions, but  you  may  find  anecdotes  and  poems  in  the  readers  used  in 
your  school. 


THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN,  AFRICAN,  AND  ORIENTAL 
REGIONS. 

The  South  American  Region  contains  more  kinds 
of  plants  and  animals  than  any  other  region,  and,  next 
to  the  Australian,  is  the  most  peculiar.  It  is  the  home  of 
many  kinds  of  opossums.  Some  carry  their  young  in  a 
pouch,  but  in  other  kinds  the  pouch  is  not  well  de- 
veloped, and  the  young  ride  on  the  mother's  back  as 
she  climbs  among  the  trees. 

The  sloth  is  a  forest-loving  animal  -that  spends  most  of  its  life 
hanging  by  its  long  curved  claws  from  the  branches  of  trees.  Tiny  air 
plants  growing  from  its  fur  give  the  animal  a  greenish  color.    The 


i2m£  %\ 


ARMADILLOS  , 


- .  2fl 


Some  animals  of  the  South  American  region. 

ant-eater  has  no  teeth,  but  has  a  long,  sticky  tongue  to  which  the 
ants  adhere.  The  armadillos  are  burrowing  animals  often  met  with  in 
the  open  plains.  They  are  covered  with  a  flexible  horny  armor,  in  which 
they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball  when  frightened.  This  region  is  the  home 
of  the  guinea  pig,  the  tapir,  the  long-tailed  monkey,  the  piglike  peccary, 
and  the  jaguar,  or  American  tiger.  Several  kinds  of  llamas  live  in  the 
Andes  and  in  the  southern  lowlands.  These  animals  are  related  to  the 
camel,  and  like  it  can  live  many  days  without  water ;  they  are  trained 
as  beasts  of  burden,  and  yield  a  wool  or  hair  that  is  woven  into  cloth. 

Among  the  birds  are  beautiful  parrots  and  macaws,  the  condor  of  the 
Andes,  —  the  largest  of  flying  birds,  —  the  ostrichlike  rhea,  and  the 
curassow,  which  is  related  to  the  Australian  brush  turkey. 

Among  the  peculiar  plants  of  this  region  are  the  mahogany,  rosewood, 
logwood,  and  cinchona  or  Peruvian-bark  trees ;  plants  yielding  India  rub- 
ber, the  vanilla  bean,  and  useful  gums ;  palms,  bananas,  bamboos,  and 
tree  ferns.  C  me  pepper,  the  potato,  the  tomato,  tobacco,  and  Indian 
corn  are  native  in  this  region,  but  the  coffee  tree,  sugar  cane  and  wheat 
were  bro.'jrht  to  South  America  by  man. 

The  /ifrican  Region  ranks  next  to  the  Australian 
South   .American  in  peculiar  plants  and  animals, 
specially    \oted  for  the  great  number  of  its  flesh 
animals  —  rons,  leopards,  panthers,  hyenas,  and  jackals  - 


LIFE. 


31 


and  for  its  hoofed  animals,  such  as  many  antelopes,  the 
Cape  buffalo,  the  hippopotamus,  the  giraffe,  the  zebra,  and 
the  wild  ass,  from  which  the  donkey  is  descended. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  many  mon- 
keys, including  the  huge  gorilla  and  the  smaller  chimpanzee,  which  are 
more  like  man  than  are  any  other  animals. 

Among  the  birds  are  the  ostrich,  the  large  secretary  vulture,  which  is 
both  a  powerful  runner  and  a  flyer,  guinea  fowl,  and  the  beautiful  blue 
and  copper-colored  plantain  eaters. 

The  plants  include  many  palms,  among  them  the  oil  palm  and  the  date 
palm ;  and  many  acacias,  most  of  them  thorny  shrubs  growing  in  desert 
lands  and  yielding  valuable  gums,  as  gum  arabic.  The  baobab  is  a 
peculiar  tree  of  Africa;  its  spreading  branches  droop  so  that  a  single 
tree  may  resemble  a  whole  grove.  The  coffee  tree  is  a  native  of  north- 
eastern Africa. 

The  Oriental  Region  is  noted  even  more  than  the  Afri- 
can for  flesh-eating  animals ;  besides  the  lion,  leopard,  and 
hyena,  it  has  the  tiger,  the  largest,  strongest,  and  fiercest 
of  the  cat  family.  Like  south  Africa,  too,  this  region  has 
the  elephant  and  the  rhinoceros,  and  herds  of  wild  buffalo, 
some  of  which  are  domesticated  as  beasts  of  burden.     An- 


i\0" 
GIRAFF 


and  Eurasia.  Their  fossil  remains  are  now  found  in  the 
rocks  of  those  grand  divisions,  above  the  fossils  of  the 
pouched  animals.  Then,  by  changes  of  climate  or  the  slow 
movements  of  the  earth's  crust,  the  barriers  came  into  ex- 
istence and  shut  off  the  life  of  South  America,  and  Africa, 
and  southeast  Asia  from  the  large  land  mass  to  the  north, 
where  these  animals  gradually  perished  and  were  replaced 
by  more  highly  organized  descendants. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bring  to  school  a  picture,  an  anecdote,  or  a 
description  of  one  animal  and  one  plant  belonging  to  each  of  these  re- 
gions. Write  next  day  a  reproduction  of  the  anecdote  or  the  description 
given  by  some  other  pupil. 


THE  EURASIAN  AND  NORTH  AMERICAN  REGIONS. 

The  Eurasian  and  North  American  regions  differ  from 
each  other  less  than  any  other  two  regions.  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  plants  and  animals  of  two  such  large 
regions,  separated  by  the  cold  Arctic  climate  and  a  sea 
barrier,  should  be  so  similar.    Yet  the  native  life  forms  of 

the  two  regions  are  seldom  exactly  alike,  and  in  some 

instances  are  quite  different. 

In  both  regions  are  found  bears,  wild  cats,  wolves,  foxes,  deer,  bea- 
vers, and  squirrels.  The  white  polar  bear  and  the  black  bear  are  the 
same  in  the  two  regions,  while  the  fierce  Rocky  Mountain  grizzly  bear 
is  much  the  same  as  the  European  browu  bear.  The  reindeer  that  is 
trained  to  draw  sledges  over  the  Arctic  snows  of  Eurasia  is  practically 
the  same  as  the  wild  caribou  which  is  hunted  for  food  in  the  region  near 
Hudson  Bay.  The  European  elk  is  the  same  as  the  American  moose 
The  Rocky  Mountain  goat  and  the  bighorn  sheep  are  cousins  of  nine- 
teen or  twenty  kinds  of  wild  goats  and  sheep,  including  the  ibex  and 
chamois,  of  Eurasia;  even  the  American  bison  (buffalo)  and  musk 
ox  are  close  kin  to  wild  cattle  found  in  Eurasia. 

Yet  the  puma,  skunk,  raccoon,  prong-horned  antelope,  muskrat, 
prairie  dog,  otter,  and  opossum  are  found  only  in  America,  while 
wild  boars,  camels,  and  wild  horses  are  found  only  in  Eurasia,  for 
the  ancestors  of  the  horses  in  America  were  introduced  by  man. 

Eagles,  owls,  hawks,  crows,  and  wrens  are  found  in  both  regions, 
but  wild  turkeys,  buzzards,  blue  jays,  orioles,  mocking  birds,  and  hum- 
ming birds  are  American,  while  vultures,  pheasants,  true  partridges, 
starlings,  magpies,  and  nightingales  are  peculiar  to  Eurasia. 


Some  animals  of  the  African  and  Oriental  regions 


other  domestic  animal,  the  zebu,  is  much  like  our  cattle, 
but  has  a  hump  over  its  shoulders. 

There  are  bears  in  this  region,  and  several  kinds  of  deer,  wild  cattle 
and  wild  swine,  and  tapirs,  much  like  those  found  in  South  America. 
This  is  the  home  of  true  mice  and  squirrels,  and  of  several  kinds  of 
monkeys,  including  the  manlike  orang-outang. 

Among  the  birds  are  the  beautiful  little  bulbul,  which  the  natives 
train  to  fight,  and  many  kinds  of  pheasants,  including  the  peacock 
and  the  jungle  fowl,  from  which  our  chickens  are  descended. 

The  plants  include  cedars,  yews,  pines,  and  oaks  along  the  slopes 
of  the  Himalayas,  but  in  the  hot  lowland  forests  are  many  spice- 
yielding  plants,  bamboos,  palms,  and  fine  hard  woods  and  cabinet 
woods,  as  teak,  ebony,  satinwood,  and  sandalwood. 

What  South  American,  African,  and  Oriental  Life 
indicates.  For  ages  after  Australia  had  become  perma- 
nently separated  from  Eurasia,  the  present  barriers  to 
the  north  of  South  America,  Africa,  and  southeast  Asia 
did  not  exist,  and  most  of  the  kinds  of  animals  now 
found  only  in  those  regions  lived  also  in  North  America 


Some  animals  of  the  Eurasian  and  North  American  regions. 


32 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


These  regions  are  both  noted  for  the  great  number  of  cone-bearing 
trees,  as  the  pines,  spruces,  firs,  hemlocks,  and  cedars ;  and  for  such 
trees  as  the  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  ash,  elm,  sycamore,  walnut,  maple, 
birch,  and  willow ;  as  well  as  for  the  gentian,  rush,  and  primrose. 

America  is  peculiar  in  its  golden  rod  and  asters,  the  bald  cypress 
trees,  and  the  great  sequoias  and  redwoods  of  the  Pacific  slope.  Eurasia 
has  a  greater  number  of  heathers,  roses,  and  the  olive  and  almond  trees. 

What  North  American  and  Eurasian  Life  indicates. 

The  similarity  in  life  forms  indicates  that  the  present  bar- 
riers between  the  North  American  and  Eurasian  regions 
have  existed  for  a  comparatively  short  time,  and  that  they 
are  not  now  so  effectual  as  the  barriers  between  these  and 
the  other  regions. 

The  present  life  forms  of  North  America  and  Eurasia  are  highly  or- 
ganized, but  in  the  rocks  there  are  found  fossils  of  forms  which  are  less 


An  extinct  tapirlike  animal  of  North  America. 

highly  organized  and  are  more  like  those  now  living 
in  the  other  regions.  This  indicates  that  the  life  forms 
now  found  in  North  America  and  Eurasia  are  the 
youngest,  or  most  recent,  in  the  world.  They  are  the 
descendants  of  the  older  fossil  forms  which  used  to 
live  there.  The  conditions  of  life  changed  rapidly 
in  these  regions,  and  the  life  forms  changed  with 
them  until  they  gradually  assumed  their  present  form, 
which  differs  greatly  from  that  of  their  ancestors. 
In  other  regions  the  conditions  changed  more  slowly, 
and  the  present  life  forms  in  those  regions  (especially 
in  Australia)  are  more  like  their  remote  ancestors. 


hence  their  plants  and  animals  are  generally  quite  similar 
to  those  of  the  neighboring  continent. 

The  Oceanic  Islands  also  have  received  their  life  forms 
from  the  continents,  but  they  contain  chiefly  birds  which 
can  fly  long  distances,  and  such  forms  of  life  as  have  seeds 
or  eggs  which  can  be  easily  transported.  Some  of  these 
are  so  light  that  they  will  float  or  can  be  carried  by  the 
winds.  Some  are  carried  in  the  stomachs  of  birds,  or 
attached  to  the  mud  on  their  feet. 

Most  of  these  forms  of  island  life  have  some  resemblance  to  kinds 
found  in  the  continent  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  or  currents 
move  toward  the  islands. 

Ocean  Life.  Many  warm-blooded  animals,  such  as 
whales,  porpoises,  seals,  and  walruses,  live  during  a  part 
or  all  of  the  time  in  the  sea,  but  have  to"  come  to  the  sur- 
face to  breathe.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  hosts  of 
true  fishes  that  can  live  and  breathe  under  water,  as 
sharks  and  mackerel  and  codfish,  besides  hundreds  of  kinds 
of  shellfish,  as  oysters  and  lobsters.  The  sea  also  con-, 
tains  thousands  of  lower  forms  of  animal  life,  such  as 
jellyfishes,  sponges,  and  coral  polyps ;  and  many  kinds 
of  seaweed  and  other  marine  vegetation. 

Light  penetrates  the  ocean  to  a  comparatively  slight  depth,  and  all 
the  water  there,  except  a  thin  surface  layer,  is  almost  as  cold  as  ice ; 
hence  vegetable  life  in  the  ocean  is  most  plentix 
ful  near  the  surface,  and  especially  in  the  shal-. 
low  waters  near  the  continents.  As  food  is  thus 
abundant,  animal  life  also  is  most  plentiful  in 
these  regions,  though  a  few  kinds  of  marine 
animals  live  near  the  bottom  of  the  deepest  parts 
of  the  sea. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "Animal  Life  in 
Madagascar"  in  Johonnot's  "Flyers,  Creepers, 
and  Swimmers,"  and  Parts  III.  and  IV.  of 
Johonnot's  "  Glimpses  of  the  Animate  World." 


The  mammoth,  an  extinct  North  American 
elephant. 


Domestic  Animals  and  Cultivated  Plants  are  descend- 
ants of  wild  ones,  but,  under  the  care  of  man,  many  of 
them  have  changed  so  greatly  that  it  is  now  hard  to  tell 
from  which  of  the  wild  animals  and  plants  they  descended- 
As  Eurasia  seems  always  to  have  been  the  home  of  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  mankind,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
most  of  our  domestic  animals  and  cultivated  plants  are  de- 
scended from  wild  animals  and  plants  of  that  grand  division. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bring  to  school  a  picture,  an  anecdote,  a  speci- 
men, or  a  description  of  some  plant  or  animal  of  the  North  American 
region,  and  of  some  plant  or  animal  of  the  Eurasian  region.  Write  next 
day  a  reproduction  6f  some  other  pupil's  anecdote  or  description. 

ISLAND  AND  OCEAN  LIFE. 

Continental  Islands  are  usually  close  to  the  mainland, 
and  many  of  them  have  not  long  been  separated  from  it ; 


TOPICS   ON   DISTRIBUTION   OF   LIFE. 
I.  Number  of  Life  Forms.    Effect  of  cli- 
mate on ;  resulting  distribution. 

II.  Kinds  of  Life.  Forests:  equatorial  — 
trees,  animal  inhabitants;  temperate  —  trees, 
animal  inhabitants.  Open  lands :  grassy  lands  — 
cause,  distribution,  life  ;  tundras  —  cause,  distri- 
bution; deserts  -cause,  distribution,  forms  of  life. 

III.  Means  of  Distribution.    Without  man's  aid.    With  man's  aid. 

IV.  Barriers.    What  they  are.    What  they  cause- 

V.  Life  Regions.  Continental  plateau:  central  regions— common 
forms,  peculiar  forms,  present  barriers ;  outlying  regions  —  number,  or- 
der in  peculiarity  of  forms,  chief  forms  of  each;  islands.  Oceanic 
region  :  island  forms ;  marine  forms. 


MAN. 

RACES  OF  MEN. 

Distribution  of  Mankind.  In  some  respects  man  is 
like  other  animals.  Like  them,  he  must  have  air  to 
breathe,  a  certain  amount  of  heat,  water  to  drink,  and 
food  to  eat.  But  he  is  vastly  superior  to  them  all  in  in- 
telligence. 


MAN. 


33 


His      intelligence      has 
taught  him  how  to  start  a 
fire,  so  as  to  warm  himself 
when  he  is  cold ;  to  make 
tools  with  which  to  fashion 
clothing  and  a  shelter  to 
protect   himself  from  the 
weather;     and     to    make 
weapons    with    which    to 
secure  food.     His  intelli- 
gence also  gives  him  the 
foresight  to  lay  up  food  in 
summer  for  use  during  the 
winter,  or  to  carry  food 
with  him  when  he  travels 
to   regions   that  do  not. 
supply    it.       Hence    the 
natural  barriers  to  other 
forms    of    life    are    not 


great  barriers  to  man.  Men  live  in  nearly 
all  the  lands  of  the  earth,  from  the  torrid 
to  the  frigid  zones. 


It  is  believed  that  many  ages  ago  men  gradually 
wandered  away  in  various  directions  from  some  cen- 
tral region,  and  made  homes  for  themselves  in  new 
lands  and  thus  peopled  the  earth.  The  people  who 
wandered  to  different  parts  of  the  earth  found  very 
different  surroundings,  to  whi«h  their  descendants 
gradually  adapted  themselves,  just  as  the  descend- 
ants of  plants  and  animals  gradually  change  and 
adapt  themselves  to  changing  conditions  of  life.  Thus 
would  arise  different  races  and  types  of  men,  in  each  of 
which  the  people  resemble  one  another  in  manners  and  customs,  and,  in 
a  general  way,  in  appearance,  while  they  differ  more  or  less  in  these 
particulars  from  the  people  of  other  races  and  types. 

Races.  Mankind  may  be  divided  into  three  principal 
races,  in  each  of  which  the  people  resemble  one  another 
somewhat  in  color  of  the  skin  and  in  the  kind  of  hair. 
These  three  races  may  be  called  the  ivhite  race,  the  yellow 
race,  and  the  black  race. 

White  Race.  The  home  of  the  white  or  "Caucasian" 
race  is  Europe,  southwestern  Asia,  and  northern  Africa. 
The  people  have  wavy  hair,  which  may  be  light  or  dark 


in  color.  Most  of  the  people  have  pinkish-white  skin, 
though  some  are  quite  dark.  This  race  includes  nearly 
half  the  people  in  the  world,  and  is  the  most  civilized 
of  all  the  races. 

The  principal  division  of  this  race  is  the  Mediterranean 
type,  to  which  we  belong.  The  home  of  this  type  is  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  western  Europe,  and 
southern  Asia  as  far  east  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges. 

The  two  principal  peoples  of  this  type  are  the  Aryans,  embracing  the 
Hindus  and  the  Persians  of  southern  Asia,  and  most  Europeans,  together 
with  their  descendants  in  all  parts  of-  the  world ;  —  and  the  Semitic  people, 
embracing  the  Jews,  Arabs,  and  Berbers  south  and  southeast  of  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea,  together  with  their  descendants. 
The  Aryan  people  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
numbers.    In  -recent  times  thousands  of  them 
have  left  Europe  to  found  homes  for  themselves 
in  each  of  the  other  grand  divisions,  and  these 
new  settlers  have  practically  taken  possession 
of  North  and  South  America  and  of  Australia, 
and  are  rapidly  taking  possession  of  Africa. 

Yellow  Race.  The  home  of  the 
yellow  race  is  northern  and  eastern  Eu- 
rasia, America,  and  most  of  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  The  hair  is  straight, 
coarse,  and  black,  and  the  skin  yel- 
lowish or  yellowish-red.  The  people 
of  the  yellow  race  are  about  as  nu- 
merous as  those  of  the  white  race,  but 
they  are  not  so  highly  civilized. 

The  principal,  and  by  far  the 
most  numerous,  type  of  this  race 
is  the  Mongolian,  the  people  of 
which,  in  addition  to  the  yellow 
skin,  are  distinguished  by  nar- 
row, almond-shaped  eyes.  This 
type  occupies  nearly  the  whole 
of  northern,  central,  and  eastern 
Asia. 


The  Malays  form  a  second 
type  of  this  race.  They  are 
often  called  the  brown  race  be- 
cause they  have  brownish-yel- 
low skin.  In  the  main  they 
are  fierce  and  warlike,  and 
much  less  civilized  than  the 
Mongolians.  They  live  in  ex- 
treme southeastern  Asia,  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  in  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  third  type  of  this  race 
consists  of  the  American  Indians, 
including  the  Eskimos.     They 


Chinese  girl. 


34 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


are  sometimes  said  to  form  the  red  race  because 
of  their  reddish-yellow  or  copper-colored  skin. 
They  are  not  so  numerous  as  the  Malays,  but 
they  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of  the  American 
continent  before  it  was  settled  by  whites.  Many 
of  them  were  savages,  though  some  tribes  in  the 
western  highlands  of  both  North  and  South 
America  were  much  more  advanced. 

Black  Race.  The  home  of  the  black 
race  is  central  and  southern  Africa  and 
some  of  the  Australian  islands.  The 
people  of  this  race  have  coarse  woolly 
or  kinky  hair,  protruding  lips,  and  dark 
brown  or  black  skin.  The  black  race 
includes  about  one  tenth  of  the  people 
in  the  world,  and  is  the  least  civilized 
of  all  the  races. 

The  negroes,  whose  home  is  central  Africa,  form 
the  principal  type  of  this  race,  while  the  small 
Papuan  type  includes  the  savages  of  New  Guinea 
and  some  other  Australian  islands.     The  natives  of  Australia  itself  have 
black  skin  but  straight  hair,  and  by  some  are  called  a  separate  race. 


Natives  of  Kaffraria,  South  Africa. 


DENSITY  OF   POPULATION. 

Although  people  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
world,  very  many  more  lire  in  some  parts  than  in  others. 
A  region  very  thickly  peopled  is  said  to  have  great  den- 
sity of  population. 

In  other  regions  one  might  travel  for  hundreds  or  even 
thousands  of  miles,  seldom,  if  ever,  seeing  a  human  being 
or  any  sign  that  people  lived  there.  Such  a  region  is  said 
to  be  thinly  peopled,  or  to  have  a  sparse  population. 

On  this  map  the  most  thickly  peopled  regions  are  shown  by  the  dark- 
est lining ;  the  regions  of  moderato  density  of  population,  by  the  lighter 
lining;  and  the  most  thinly  peopled  regions,  by  dots. 

In  which  grand  division  are  the  largest  regions  of  very  dense  popula- 
tion ?  In  what  part  of  the  grand  division  is  each  ?  What  type  lives  in 
each  ?  These  regions  do  not  form  a  large  part  of  the  continental  pla- 
teau, yet  they  are  so  densely  populated  that  they  contain  about  two 
thirds  of  the  people  in  the  world ! 

In  which  two  grand  divisions  are  the  largest  regions  of  moderately 
dense  population?  To  what  types  do  the  people  of  these  regions  in 
Eurasia  belong?  To  what  type 
do  the  people  in  central  Africa 
belong?  Where  is  the  largest 
region  of  moderately  dense  pop- 
ulation in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere ?  This  is  the  eastern  half 
of  our  own  country.  Nearly  all 
the  regions  of  dense  and  moder- 
ately dense  population  in  North 
and  South  America,  Australia, 
and  southern  Africa  are  occupied 
chiefly  by  Aryan  people  whose 
ancestors  went  there  from  Eu- 
rope to  live  within  the  last 
hundred  years. 

What  part  of  North  America 
is  very  thinly  peopled?  What 
part  of  South  America;  of  Eu- 
rasia; of  Africa;  of  Australia? 
These  regions  together  include 
more  than  half  of  all  the  conti- 


nents, but  the  population  is  so  sparse  that  they 
do  not  contain  so  many  people  as  live  in  the  two 
little  island  groups,  the  one  east,  and  the  other  west 
of  Eurasia.  Compare  this  population  map  with 
the  rainfall  map  (p.  26),  and  tell  why  some  of 
these  thinly  peopled  regions  are  not  fitted  for  a 
dense  population. 


MAN'S  CULTURE. 

The  Progress  of  Man.  Man  is  con- 
stantly learning  how  to  make  things 
and  to  do  things  which  enable  him 
to  live  more  comfortably. 

We  have  many  conveniences  nowadays,  such  as 
the  electric  light,  railroads,  sewing  machines,  and 
hundreds  of  other  common  things,  which  were  en- 
tirely unknown  when  our  grandparents  were 
children.  Name  several  other?.  A  few  hundred 
years  ago  the  art  of  printing  was  unknown ;  the 
only  books  which  then  existed  were  written  by 
hand,  and  comparatively  few  people  knew  how  to  read.  Some  of  these  old 
books  were  histories,  from  which  we  learn  how  people  lived  at  that  time. 
A  few  thousand  years  ago  no  one  in  the  world  had  yet  learned  how  to 
write,  and  we  know  very  little  of  how  people  then  lived,  since  they  left 
no  written  record  of  anything.  Still  it  is  certain  that  people  lived  long 
before  that,  because  in  rock  deposits  that  are  many  thousands  of  years 
old,  we  find  things  that  must  have  been  made  by  men,  such  as  stone 
arrowheads,  stone  axes,  bits  of  pottery,  and  pieces  of  reindeer  horn  with 
rude  pictures  scratched  on  them. 

Savagery.  We  therefore  conclude  that  at  one  time, 
many  thousands  of  years  ago,  all,  or  nearly  all,  people  were 
more  ignorant  than  the  most  savage  tribes  now  living. 

They  probably  did  not  know  how  to  make  many  things,  but  lived  in 
caves,  wore  no  clothing,  and  ate  only  fruits,  nuts,  roots,  and  such  insects 
as  they  could  catch,  and  such  small  animals  as  they  could  kill  with  clubs 
and  stones.  At  last  some  one  may  have  learned  how  to  tie  a  sharp  stone 
on  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  thus  make  a  spear  with  which  to  spear  fish  or 
kill  animals.  Then  some  one  may  have  learned  that  sticks  rubbed 
together  will  get  hot  and  at  last  burn,  thus  starting  a  fire.  The  most 
ignorant  tribes  in  Australia  to-day  do  not  know  how  to  do  much  more 
than  this.  Gradually  some  of  the  early  men  invented  bows  and  arrows, 
discovered  how  to  chip  stones  rudely  into  shape  for  arrowheads  and  axes, 
and  learned  how  to  make  a  canoe  by  hollowing  out  a  log  with  fire  and 
stone  scrapers. 


MAN. 


35 


Each  of  these  discoveries  enabled  people  to  live  more  comfortably 
than  before.  People  who  have  not  learned  how  to  do  much  more  than 
this  are  savages. 

Some  tribes  in  Africa,  and  some  of  the  most  ignorant  tribes  of  the 
American  Indians,  are  scarcely  more  advanced  than  this  to-day. 

Barbarism.  The  next  important  step  in  the  progress 
of  man  seems  to  have  been  the  learning  how  to  make  rude 
pottery,  by  roughly  shaping  bowls  and  other  vessels  of  soft 
clay,  and  baking  them  hard  by  fire.  In  Eurasia,  where  there 
were  wild  horses  and  many  kinds  of  wild  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats,  men  gradually  learned  how  to  tame  and  domesticate 
these  animals,  and  to  cultivate  several  kinds  of  grain; 
while  in  America  men  learned  how  to  plant  and  raise  corn, 
which  is  perhaps  the  easiest  of  all  grains  to  cultivate. 

With  their  increasing  knowledge  the  more  advanced  races  gradually 
learned  how  to  improve  their  tools  and  weapons.    They  smoothed  and 


Nearly  all  the  Indians  who  lived  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  America 
when  it  was  first  visited  by  white  men  knew  how  to  make  pottery  and 
to  cultivate  corn,  while  some  of  the  Indians  living  in  the  western  high- 
lands had  advanced  nearly  through  the  highest  stage  of  barbarism. 

Civilization.  When  men  at  last  learned  to  write,  and 
were  thus  able  to  leave  records  of  what  they  did  and 
thought,  they  had  advanced  to  a  stage  that  may  be  called 
the  beginning  of  civilization. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Mongolian  type  have  reached  tho  beginning  of 
civilization,  but  have  not  progressed  far  beyond  it.  Tho  greater  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  type,  and  especially  its  great  Aryan  branch,  have 
continued  to  improve,  and  are  still  making  inventions  and  discoveries ; 
and  these  people  form  the  enlightened  nations  of  to-day.  The  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  of  navigation,  of  printing,  of  architecture,  the  discov- 
eries of  nature's  laws,  and  the  application  of  steam  and  electricity  to 
the  needs  of  man,  mark  the  highest  stage  to  which  he  has  advanced. 
Mention  any  other  discoveries  which  belong  to  the  age  of  civilization. 


About  500  years  before  Christ. 


About  the  time  of  Christ. 


About  the  year  500. 


About  the  year  1000. 


The  progress  of  geographical  discovery ;  the  darkest  tint  indicates  unknown  regions. 


polished  their  rough  stone  arrowheads  and  spearheads  and  axes,  made 
fishhooks  of  bone,  and  rough  needles  with  which  they  could  sew  to- 
gether the  skins  of  animals  for  clothing.  Then  some  one  found  copper 
in  the  earth  and  discovered  that  it  was  soft  enough  to  be  hammered 
into  the  proper  shape  for  ornaments,  while  some  one  else  found  tin  and 
discovered  that  both  tin  and  copper  would  melt,  and  when  melted  to- 
gether would  cool  into  a  very  hard  metal  (bronze).  Out  of  this  metal 
the  people  molded  tools  that  were  a  great  improvement  on  their  old  stone 
and  bone  implements.  With  these  tools  they  learned  to  quarry  and 
roughly  to  shape  stone  to  make  houses,  while  some  one  else  learned  how 
to  make  bricks  from  clay.  They  also  twisted  the  stringy  fibers  of  plants 
into  rude  threads  and  wove  them  into  a  coarse  cloth.  Finally,  those  in- 
terested in  working  metals  found  out  how  to  get  iron  from  the  minerals, 
or  ores,  in  which  it  is  found  in  the  earth,  and  soon  learned  some  of  the 
many  uses  of  this  metal. 

Though  no  one  in  the  world  had  yet  learned  how  to  write,  and  hence 
every  one  was  ignorant  in  comparison  with  the  people  we  know,  still  the 
people  who  knew  how  to  do  some  or  all  of  these  things  could  live  much 
more  comfortably  than  the  savage  tribes. 

People  who  have  advanced  far  enough  to  make  pottery,  to  have  do- 
mestic animals  or  some  cultivated  plants,  and  to  know  something  of  the 
use  of  the  metals,  but  who  have  not  yet  learned  to  write,  are  said  to  be 
in  the  condition  of  barbarism.  Very  many  of  the  negro  tribes  of  Africa 
and  the  Mongolian  tribes  of  northern  Asia  are  barbarians  to-day. 


The  maps  above  indicate  the  gradual  growth  of  man's  knowledge  of 
the  world  after  he  became  civilized  enough  to  leave  a  record  of  what  he 
knew  upon  the  subject.  From  the  first  map  tell  in  what  part  of  the 
world  man  first  became  civilized  enough  to  leave  such  a  record.  What 
parts  of  the  world  next  became  known  to  civilized  man  ?  What  great 
geographical  discovery  was  made  about  400  years  ago  ?  Why  are  tho 
later  maps  surrounded  by  circles,  while  the  earlier  ones  are  not  t  What 
part  of  the  world  is  still  unknown  1 

Supplementary  Work.  Bring  to  school,  or  describe,  any  implements 
or  utensils  used  in  your  ancestors'  time,  and  tell  what  improvements  have 
been  made  since  then.  Bring  to  the  school  collection  any  stone  spear- 
heads, arrowheads,  pipes,  or  other  stone  implements  which  you  or  your 
friends  may  have  found  in  the  fields  near  your  home.  Read  chapter  14 
of  "  New  State  Series  Grammar  School  History  of  the  United  States." 


GOVERNMENT  AND  RELIGION. 

Government.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  human  progress,  when  men 
owned  but  little  property  and  so  could  own  it  in  common,  there  was 
no  necessity  for  government  as  we  know  it.  In  time  of  war  the  ablest 
warriors  were  chosen  as  chiefs  to  lead  the  various  war  parties,  and  in 
times  of  peace  the  older  men  and  women  gave  counsel  to  the  others. 


36 


THE   EARTH   AS  A   WHOLE. 


In  Eurasia,  however,  man  gradually  became  civilized,  and,  because  of 
his  greater  knowledge,  was  able  to  accumulate  flocks  and  herds  and  other 
valuable  property.  Then  disputes  arose  as  to  the  ownership  of  the 
property,  and  it  was  seized  by  the  strongest  and  shrewdest  men,  who 
made  the  weaker  people  serve  them.  Thus,  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
the  people  were  divided  into  two  classes :  the  rich  and  powerful  families, 
or  aristocrats,  who  made  all  the  laws,  and  the  great  mass  of  poor 
people,  who  at  last  came  to  think  that  the  aristocrats  were  nobles 
born  to  rule. 

The  strongest  of  the  nobles  finally  claimed  to  be  the  king,  or 
monarch,  of  a  great  region  surrounding  his  home,  and  to  own  all 
the  land  and  the  people  living  on  it ;  but  he  gave  parts  of  the  region 
to    the  weaker    nobles 


living  in  it,  on  condi- 
tion that  they  sho«ld 
help  him  in  war  and  ac- 
knowledge that  he,  and 
one  of  his  family  after 
his  death,  should  be 
monarch.  Thus  mon- 
archies were  established 
in  many  parts  of  Eura- 
sia. 


Monarchies.  For 
many  years  mon- 
archies were  abso- 
lute, or  despotic ; 
that  is,  the  mon- 
arch, with  perhaps 
a  few  nobles  to  ad- 
vise him,  made  all  the  laws  and  could 
put  any  of  his  subjects  to  death  at  his 
pleasure.  Absolute  monarchies  still 
exist  in  some  parts  of  Eurasia.  In 
other  parts,  the  people  gradually  be- 
came so  civilized  that  they  learned 
how  to  take  some  of  the  power  away 
from  the  monarch.  In  such  countries 
the  laws  are  made  by  a  body  of  men, 
composed  partly  of  nobles  and  partly 
of  men  chosen  from  the  common  people,  while  the  mon- 
arch can  only  approve  or  disapprove  of  the  laws  thus 
made.  Such  are  the  governments  of  most  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe  to-day.  They  are  called  limited  or  con- 
stitutional monarchies. 

Republics.  In  some  countries,  when  the  common  peo- 
ple became  strong  and  civilized,  they  decided  to  take  all 
the  powers  of  government  into  their  own  hands  and  to 
do  away  entirely  with  the  monarch  and  nobles  who  held 
office  because  of  their  birth.  In  such  countries  the  people 
elect  a  body  of  men  to  make  the  laws,  and  a  chief  officer, 
or  president,  to  see  that  the  laws  are  executed.  These  men 
hold  office  only  a  few  years,  and  then  others  are  chosen 
to  succeed  them.  Such  a  government  is  called  a  republic. 
Our  own  government  and  most  of  the  other  governments 
established  by  white  men  in  America,  as  well  as  a  few  of 
the  governments  of  Europe,  are  of  this  form. 

Religions.  The  Jewish  religion  was  proclaimed  by 
Abraham  in  southern  Asia  about  four  thousand  years  ago. 
The  Jews  believe  in  one  G-od  and  in  the  Old  Testament. 


St.  Basil's,  Moscow. 


Jews  are  now  found  in  all  civilized  countries,  but  most  of 
them  live  in  Europe. 

Christianity  teaches  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God, 
and  the  Savior  of  mankind.  Christians  believe  in  one 
God  and  in  the  Holy  Bible.  This  is  the  prevailing  re- 
ligion in  Europe,  America, 
and  the  other  more  highly 
civilized  parts  of  the  world. 
About  one  fourth  of  mankind 
profess  Christianity.  The 
chief  divisions  are  the  Catho- 
ic,  the  Greek  Orthodox,  and 
the  Protestant  churches. 

Mohammedanism  was  pro- 
claimed by  Mohammed  about 
thirteen  hundred  years  ago. 
Mohammedans  believe  in  one 
God,  but  the  Koran  is  their 
holy  book.    This  is  the  pre- 
vailing  religion  in   most   of 
northern  Africa  and 
southwestern  Asia. 
Itsfollowers  include 
about  one  tenth  of 
the   people   in   the 
world. 

Brahm'anism  is  a 
very  old  religion  of 
southern  Asia.  Its 
chief  god  is  called 
Brahma.  This  reli- 
gion divides  its  fol- 
lowers into  classes, 
or  castes,  and  the 
members  of  differ- 
ent castes  may  not 
eat  the  same  kind 


St.  Peter's,  Rome. 


of  food,  nor  pursue  the  same  kind  of  business,  nor  asso- 
ciate with  one  another.  More  than  one  tenth  of  mankind 
are  Brahmanists. 

Buddhism  is  professed  by  most  of  the  people  of  eastern 
Asia,  and  its  followers  embrace  more  than  one  third  of  the 
human  race.  It  denies  the  existence  of  a  soul,  but  teaches 
charity  and  kindness  to  all  living  things. 

The  more  ignorant  tribes  of  men  are  pagans.  They 
believe  in  many  gods  or  spirits,  and  worship  them,  or  idols 
representing  them.  There  are  about  as  many  pagans  as 
Brahmanists.  

INDUSTRIES. 

A  savage  has  comparatively  few  wants,  and  nearly  all  the  things 
he  needs  are  supplied  by  the  labor  of  his  own  hands.  He  makes  the 
rude  tools  and  weapons  with  which  he  procures  raw  materials,  out  of 
which  he  prepares  his  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 

When  man  has  advanced  to  the  stage  of  barbarism,  he  has  learned  to 
want  more  and  better  things,  a  more  certain  supply  of  food,  better 
clothing,  and  more  perfect  shelter.  To  supply  these  things  better  tools 
and  implements  are  necessary.  Hence  some  of  the  people  devote  much 
of  their  time  to  making  tools,  others  to  procuring  food,  and  others  still 


MAN. 


37 


to  some  other  industry,  while  each  exchanges  the  result  of  his  labor  for 
the  needful  things  produced  by  others.  By  such  division  of  labor  each 
one  learns  to  do  his  own  special  kind  of  work  better  than  it  could  other- 
wise be  done.  But  in  the  stage  of  barbarism,  as  in  savagery,  men's 
wants  do  not  extend  much  beyond  the  things  that  can  be  supplied 
from  their  own  neighborhood. 

As  man  advances  in  civilization,  however,  his  wants  increase  very 
greatly,  and  as  he  has  learned  how  to  make  roads,  and  ships,  and 
railroads,  he  has  come  to  depend  upon  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  to 
supply  his  needs.  As  the  wants  of  civilized  man  have  increased,  so 
has  the  division  of  labor  by  which  they  are  satisfied.  Gradually  it  has 
come  about  that  each  person  more  and  more  confines  himself  to  a  single 
kind  of  work  or  occupation,  depending  more  and  more  upon  those 
who  do  other  kinds  of  work  to  supply  his  own  different  wants.  Thus 
very  many  different  occupations,  or  industries,  have  grown  up  wherever 
civilized  man  lives. 

The  production  of  raw  material  for  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter  gives  rise  to  five  great  industries: — agriculture, 
herding,  fishing,  lumbering,  and  mining.  The  fitting  of  raw 
material  for  use  gives  rise  to  the  industry  of  manufactur- 
ing; the  distribution  of  raw  material  and  of  the  manufac- 
tured product  gives  rise  to  the  industry  of  commerce,  or 
trade  and  transportation.  In  these  seven  industries  the 
greater  part  of  civilized  mankind  finds  occupation  and 
earns  a  livelihood. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  work  of  tilling  the  soil  and  raising  plants  for  the 
use  of  man  is  called  agriculture.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  industries,  and  gives  occupation  to  about  one 
fourth  of  the  civilized  workers  of  the  world. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  important.  If  the  land  is  too  wet  it 
must  be  drained,  or  the  roots  of  the  plants  will  decay.  If  it  is  too  dry  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  the  water  from  the  better-supplied  regions  may  be 
led  to  it  by  ditches,  or  the  rain  which  falls  at  other  seasons  may  be  stored 
in  reservoirs  to  be  used  when  needed.  The  watering  of  land  in  this  way 
is  called  irrigation.  Some  of  the  most  productive  parts  of  southern  Asia 
and  the  western  United  States  are  made  fertile  by  irrigation. 

Plants  draw  a  part  of  their  food  from  the  ground  through  their  roots, 
but  all  plants  do  not  require  the  same  kind  of  food.  To  prevent  the  soil 
of  a  field  from  becoming  exhausted  and  poor,  farmers  plant,  in  succes- 
sive years,  crops  which  draw  different  materials  from  the  ground.  This 
is  called  the  rotation  of  crops.  Sometimes,  instead  of  rotating  -crops, 
there  is  added  to  the  soil  plant  food  of  the  same  kind  as  the  crops 
have  taken  away.  The  materials  added  are  called  fertilizers.  In  parts  of 
Europe,  where  the  land  has  been  cultivated  for  hundreds  of  years,  a 


An  irrigating  canal  in  the  California  V&lley. 

great  deal  of  fertilizing  material  is  used,  but  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  where  land  is  as  yet  plentiful  and  cheap,  men  have  found  it 
cheaper  to  use  new  land  than  to  preserve  the  old  by  fertilizing. 

Many  of  the  best  farming  lands  of  the  world  are  in  the 
plains  drained  by  the  great  livers  of  the  temperate  regions ; 
but  wherever  there  is  soil  watered  and  heated  sufficiently 
for  plants  to  grow,  food  is  raised  if  there  is  a  good  market 
within  reach.  The  crops  from  the  farms  must  be  trans- 
ported to  places  where  food  materials  are  not  produced, 
and  yet  where  there  are  many  people  to  be  fed.  Garden 
vegetables  and  many  kinds  of  fruit  are  grown  in  the 
neighborhood  of  cities,  for  transportation  over  long  dis- 
tances is  difficult  and  expensive. 

Cultivated  Plants.  The  chief  food  plants  store  nour- 
ishment in  their  seeds  and  are  called  grains.  Of  these, 
wheat,  rice,  corn,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  are  the  most  im- 
portant. 

Wheat  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  people  of  America  and  western 
Europe.  It  grows  best  in  a  rather  cool  climate,  and  hence  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  lowlands  of  the  temperate  zones,  both  north  and  south, 
but  it  also  grows  well  in  the  highlands  of  the  torrid  zone.  Why  ?  It  thus 
happens  that  a  crop  of  this  important  food  is  ripening  in  some  part  of 
the  earth  during  every  month  of  the  year. 

Rice  is  raised  in  rather  warm  climates,  and  chiefly  in  localities  that 
can  be  easily  flooded. 

Corn,  though  a  tropical  plant,  grows  very  rapidly  and  thrives  well 
wherever  the  weather  is  hot  and  moist  during  its  short  growing  season. 
It  is  one  of  the  chief  foods  both  of  man  and  of  the  domestic  animals. 


Wheat  harvesting  on  the  Central  Lowland  of  the  United  States. 


38 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


Rye,  oats,  and  barley  are  cultivated  in  the  cool  parts  of  nearly  all  coun- 
tries in  the  temperate  zones. 

Some  plants  store  nourishment  in  their  underground  stems  or  in  their 
roots.  The  potato  is  a  kind  of  underground  stem,  but  the  beet  is  a  root. 
Both  belong  to  temperate  climates,  and  both  are  used  directly  as  food, 
but  from  the  beet  sugar  is  also  made.  About  half  of  the  sugar  used  in 
the  world  is  made  from  the  beet.  The  other  great  sugar-producing  plant 
is  the  sugar  cane,  a  kind  of  grass  which  looks  like  Indian  corn.  It 
requires  a  hot,  moist  climate. 

Of  fruits,  the  apple  is  the  most  important  of  the  temperate  zone,  since 
it  can  easily  be  kept  throughout  the  winter.  Grapes  are  very  widely  dis- 
tributed ;  oranges  and  lemons  are  raised  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  tem- 
perate regions.  Bananas  and  dates  form  the  chief  food  of  man  in  some 
tropical  countries. 

Tea  is  grown  only  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
while  coffee  is  a  native  of  the  tropical  climate  and  is  cultivated  in  both 


The  most  useful  draught  and  pack  animals  in  different  parts  of  the 
world  are  the  horse,  the  camel,  the  donkey,  the  elephant,  the  ox,  the 
llama,  and  the  reindeer,  though  the  dog  is  used  in  the  northern  part  of 
North  America  to  drag  sledges,  and  in  many  parts  of  Eurasia  to  draw 
little  wagons. 

The  chief  use  which  man  makes  of  animals,  however,  is  for  food. 
Cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry  supply  most  of  the  animal  food  used 
in  the  world. 

Cattle  are  the  most  important  food  animals.  They  are  raised  in  great 
numbers  to  supply  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  beef.  Pork  is  not  so  whole- 
some as  either  beef  or  mutton,  but  it  is  more  easily  preserved ;  hence 
hogs  are  raised  in  enormous  numbers,  especially  in  regions  where  corn 
can  be  grown  to  feed  them,  and  in  forest  regions  where  they  can  feed  on 
the  wild  nuts,  or  mast. 

The  meat  of  these  animals  is  eaten  fresh  or  is  preserved  for  use  by 
curing ;  that  is,  by  salting  or  smoking.    A  great  deal  of  meat  is  canned, 

as  are  also  soups  and  meat  extracts. 
Live  cattle  and  sheep  are  sent  im- 
mense distances  on  cars  or  in  cattle 
ships,  or  the  fresh  meat  is  shipped  in 
iced  chambers. 

Poultry  are  raised  in  great  numbers 
in  nearly  all  civilized  countries,  not 
only  for  food  but  also  for  their  eggs. 
Both  the  live  fowls  and  their  eggs  are 
articles  of  export  from  many  countries. 
Sheep  and  goats  are  raised  chiefly 
for  their  wool   or  hair,  which  is  con- 


hemispheres.  Tobacco  grows  well  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate 
zones  where  there  is  an  ample  rainfall.  Our  own  country  produces 
about  one  half  of  the  tobacco  of  the  world. 

Fibers.  Cotton  i3  the  most  important  plant  cultivated  for  other  pur- 
poses than  food.  From  this  plant  is  obtained  a  fiber  of  which  is  made 
the. most  widely  used  cloth  in  the  world.  The  cotton  regions  of  the  world 
lie  in  the  moist  lowlands  of  the  temperate  regions.  Flax,  from  which 
linen  is  made  and  linseed  oil  is  obtained ;  and  hemp  and  jute,  from 
which  rope  and  cordage  are  manufactured,  are  also  fiber  plants.  They 
grow  in  both  warm  and  cool  countries. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bring  specimens  of  useful  plants  to  school  to 
form  a  collection.  Bring  to  school  a  description  of  one  grain,  or  root, 
or  fruit,  used  by  man  as  a  food ;  of  one  useful  plant  not  used  for  food. 
Write,  next  day,  a  reproduction  of  one  description  given  by  a  school- 
mate. Read  or  recite  "  Ode  for  an  Agricultural  Celebration,"  or  "  Plant- 
ing of  the  Apple  Tree,"  by  Bryant ;  and  "  The  Huskers,"  by  Whittier. 


HERDING. 

Man  has  domesticated  such  animals  chiefly  as  are  use- 
ful as  beasts  of  burden  or  serve  to  supply  him  with  material 
for  food  and  clothing.  Name  some  such  animals.  Can 
you  think  of  some  domestic  animals  not  useful  in  these 
ways  ?    How  are  they  useful  ? 

The  raising  and  breeding  of  domestic  animals  is  closely 
associated  with  farming  and  nearly  every  farmer  pursues 
this  industry  also  to  supply  the  needs  of  his  own  family. 
In  many  parts  of  the  world,  however,  especially  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  open  grassy  regions,  where  the  rainfall 
is  not  sufficient  for  successful  farming,  the  herding  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  the  chief  occupation. 


Hog  raising  in  the  Central  Lowland,  Illinois. 

verted  into  clothing;  but  their  flesh  is  also  eaten.  The  alpaca,  which 
yields  a  long,  fine  wool,  is  kept  in  large  herds  in  the  Andes  Mountains, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  world  the  hair  of  the  camel  is  used  in  making 
coarse  shawls  and  carpets. 

As  men  have  grown  more  civilized  they  have  learned  to  make  greater 
use  of  animal  products.  The  skins  of  domestic  animals  are  made  into 
leather.  Bones,  horns,  and  hoofs  are  used  in  making  combs,  buttons, 
knife  handles,  and  glue.  The  hair  of  cattle  and  refuse  wool  are  used 
in  making  felt,  and  the  bristles  of  the  hog  in  making  brushes.  What 
use  is  made  of  down  and  feathers  ?  Name  some  other  uses  of  animal 
products. 

Supplemental  Work.  Supply  to  the  school  collection  such  animal 
products  as  you  can  obtain.  Bring  to  school  an  account  of  one  domestic 
animal,  describing  it,  and  telling  where  and  how  it  is  raised,  and  what 
are  its  uses.  Write,  next  day,  a  reproduction  of  the  account  given  by 
one  of  your  schoolmates.    Read  or  recite  "  The  Drovers,"  by  Whittier. 


FISHING. 

The  most  valuable  fishing  grounds  of  the  world  are  the 
shallow  parts  of  the  sea  near  the  shores  of  the  continents, 
in  the  north  temperate  zone. 


MAN. 


39 


Cod  fishing  on  Newfoundland  Banks. 

The  great  cod  fisheries  are  on  the  Newfoundland 
"  Banks,"  east  of  the  northern  part  of  North  America. 

Here  hundreds  of  fishing  schooners  may  be  seen,  from  which  each 
day  the  men  go  in  rowboats,  called  dories,  to  their  long  lines,  or  trawls. 
These  are  baited  every  few  feet,  and  are  held  down  at  the  end  by  anchors. 
The  men  take  the  codfish  off,  rebait  the  hooks,  and  re- 
turn to  the  schooner,  where  they  clean  and  salt  the  fish. 
When  the  schooner  has  a  full  fare,  or  catch,  she  steers  for 
home,  which  may  be  Europe,  or  the  northeastern  part  of 
our  country,  for  all  nations  may  fish  in  any  part  of  the 
great  ocean.    On  shore  the  cod  are  first  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  then  packed  and  sent  to  market.   There  are  also  valu- 
able cod  fisheries  off  the  northwestern  coast  of  Europe. 

Herring  and  mackerel,  which  are  smaller  than  cod, 
are  usually  caught  with  long  nets,  called  seines.  Her- 
ring are  salted,  smoked,  and  dried,  but  mackerel  are  pre- 
served in  a  strong  brine.  Very  small  herring,  caught  on 
the  North  American  coast,  are  extensively  canned  in  oil 
and  called  sardines,  though  the  true  sardines  are  caught 
in  great  numbers  only  off  the  south  and  west  coasts  of 
Europe. 

Salmon  are  caught  in  rivers,  up  which  they  come 
from  the  sea  to  lay  their  eggs.  These  fishes  are  canned 
in  great  numbers  on  the  west  coast  of  North  America. 

Oysters  live  upon  the  bottom  of  shallow  shore  waters 
and  are  obtained  by  dredging,  or  with  tongs.   Immense 
quantities  of  them  are  taken  along  the  coasts  both  of  Europe  and  of  Amer- 
ica, packed  in  ice,  and  sent  to  all  parts  of  these  grand  divisions.    What 
other  kinds  of  shellfish  have  you  eaten  ?    From  what  part  of  the  world 
did  they  come  ? 

The  most  valuable  fresh-water  fish  are  the  whitefish  from 
the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America  and  from  the  lakes  of 
northern  Europe. 

What  large  animals,  other  than  fish,  live  in  the  sea  ?  How  do  they 
differ  from  fish  ? 

Seals  live  in  the  summer  of  each  year  on  land,  where  they  gather 
|  in  groups  or  families  and  devote  themselves  to  the  rearing  of  their  young. 
For  what  are  seals  valuable  ?  They  are  found  mostly  in  the  cold  waters 
of  the  polar  oceans. 

From  the  whale  an  oil  is  obtained,  which  was  formerly  used  as  kerosene 
is  now.  Of  what  use  is  whalebone  ?  It  is  obtained  from  the  mouth  of 
the  whale. 

The  sponge,  which  is  the  skeleton  of  a  marine  animal,  is  a  'valuable 
product  of  the  sea,  as  are  also  pearls  from  tH  pearl  oyster,  and  the  beau- 
tiful coral  which  is  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  sea  and  is  used  for 
ornamental  purposes. 


Supplemental  Work.  Supply  to  the  school  collection  some  product 
of  the  sea.  Bring  to  school  an  account  of  some  sea  animal  or  plant,  or 
of  the  fisherman's  life.  Write,  next  day,  a  reproduction  of  the  account 
given  by  one  of  your  schoolmates.  Find  out  about  the  Fish  Commission  at 
Washington,  and  its  work.  Read  or  recite  "  The  Three  Fishers,"  by 
Kingsley,  and  "The  Fishermen,"  by  Whittier. 


LUMBERING. 

Among  the  chief  needs  of  man  are  shelter  and  warmth, 
both  of  which  are,  in  great  measure,  supplied  by  forests. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  timber  cut  is  used  for  fuel,  while 
the  remainder  is  used  in  making  houses,  vehicles,  furni- 
ture, and  hundreds  of  other  useful  articles. 

Besides  lumber  and  fuel,  many  other  useful  products 
are  obtained  from  trees.  The  pines  yield  tar,  pitch,  rosin, 
and  turpentine.  The  sap  of  several  kinds  of  tropical  trees 
and  huge  climbing  vines  yields  rubber ;  oak  and  hemlock 
barks  are  used  in  tanning  leather;  the  cheaper  kinds  of 
paper  are  made  from  wood  ground  to  a  pulp ;  and  many 
trees  yield  drugs  and  dyewoods. 

In  many  places  trees  are  cut  in  the  autumn  and  winter  by  lumbermen 
who  at  these  seasons  live  in  camps  in  the  forests.    They  fell  the  trees 


bli^'i 

w^ 

■-'■:    W^     :&  . 

'    JP"" 

<  -j&l 

MmT 

'     "'                     '  Y^^     "         ■''         :  ...  .. 
*      //      >            AT;S- 

■  #mh( 

.--"^■^8 

•Z^^*-*^^? 

:^^^ 

j'ia^^yvv?  i^y*"'**-  * 

Lumbering  in  Washington. 

with  ax  and  saw,  and  cut  them  into  logs,  which  during  high  water  are 
floated  down  the  nearest  stream  to  the  sawmill.  Logs  cut  on  a  moun- 
tain side  are  often  slid  down  an  artificial  chute.  In  some  places 
railroads  are  built  to  carry  logs  to  the  mills  or  to  the  water.  At  the 
sawmills  the  logs  are  cut  into  square  timber  or  into  planks,  which  are 
then  generally  dried  or  seasoned  before  use. 

The  various  kinds  of  woods  differ  in  grain,  hardness,  and  durability. 
The  cone-bearing  trees,  including  pine,  spruce,  and  fir,  are  valuable  for 
many  purposes  because  the  wood  is  soft,  easily  worked,  and  light  in 
weight,  though  it  is  not  so  durable  as  the  hard  woods  —  oak,  walnut,  ash, 
and  maple.  Soft  woods,  especially  pine,  are  used  for  housebuilding  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  many  kinds  of  wooden  articles,  while  the  hard 
woods  are  used  in  shipbuilding  and  are  manufactured  into  carriages,  fur- 
niture, and  farming  implements. 

Supplemental  Work.  Supply  to  the  school  collection  specimens  of 
wood  and  forest  products.  Bring  to  school  a  description  of  one  kind  of 
useful  tree,  or  an  account  of  methods  of  lumbering.  Write  next  day  a 
reproduction  of  the  account  given  by  one  of  your  schoolmates.  Find  out 
what  is  done  to  preserve  or  to  plant  forests  in  this  and  other  countries. 
Find  out  about  Arbor  Day.  Read  or  recite  "The  Lumbermen,"  by 
Whittier. 


40 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


MINING. 

Milling  is  the  getting  of  minerals  out  of  the  earth.  In 
all  parts  of  the  world  peopled  by  the  white  race,  this  in- 
dustry has  increased  more  rapidly  in  recent  years  than 
any  of  the  other  great  industries,  except  trade  and  trans- 
portation. 

The  most  useful  minerals  are  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  cop- 
per, gold,  silver,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  and  building  stones. 


Gold  milling  and  washing,  Montana. 


Coal.  The  most  important 
branch  of  this  industry  is  the 
mining  of  coal,  which  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  fuel,  and 
for  making  illuminating  gas. 
Coal  is  found  in  all  the  grand 
divisions,  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  is  mined  in  west- 
ern Europe  and  eastern  North 
America. 

How  is  cpal  formed  ?  (p.  22.)  In 
some  places  the  coal  beds  crop  out 
at  the  sides  of  a  valley,  and  the  coal  is  mined  by  blasting  tunnels  right 
into  the  bed ;  but  in  many  places  the  coal  can  be  reached  only  by  sinking 
a  deep  hole,  or  shaft,  down  to  it  from  the  earth's  surface.  From  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft,  parallel  and  cross  tunnels  are  made  in  the  coal  bed,  and 
then  the  coal  between  the  tunnels  is  taken  out.  Railroad  tracks  are 
laid  in  the  mines,  and  on  them  trains  of  cars  dragged  by  mules,  or  some- 
times by  electric  engines,  carry  the  coal  to  the  mouth  of  the  mine,  or  to 
the  foot  of  the  shaft,  up  which  it  must  be  hoisted  to  the  surface. 

The  mines  are  perfectly  dark,  and  the  miners  are  lighted  about  their 
work  by  little  lamps  attached  to  their  caps.  Gases  which  may  escape 
into  the  mine  from  seams  in  the  coal  are  sometimes  ignited  by  these 
lamps.  A  terrible  explosion  follows,  and  hundreds  of  poor  miners  may 
be  suffocated  or  buried  alive  by  the  falling  roof  of  the  mine.  Mines  are 
nearly  always  rendered  damp  by  the  ground  water  which  runs  into  them. 
This  must  be  drained  off  through  a  tunnel,  or  pumped  out  up  the  shaft. 
It  is  difficult  to  ventilate  deep  mines,  and  a  current  of  fresh  air  must 
often  be  forced  down  the  shaft  by  fans  run  by  machinery. 

Iron.  After  coal,  the  most  important  product  of  the 
mining  industry  is  iron.  Like  most  of  the  other  metals, 
iron  is  not  found  pure,  but  is  combined  with  other  sub- 
stances, forming  ore. 

The  ore  is  put  into  great  furnaces  with  coal,  coke,  or 
charcoal.    The  burning  of  this  fuel  melts  the  ore,  and  the 


metal  iron,  set  free,  then  flows  off  nearly  pure.  A  sub- 
stance called  a  flux  is  generally  added  to  make  the  molten 
ore  more  liquid.     This  process  is  called  smelting. 

Iron  ore  is  found  in  nearly  every  country,  but  those 
mines  which  are  most  convenient  to  coal  have  been  most 
worked ;  hence  the  great  iron-mining  regions  of  the  world 
are  usually  in  or  near  the  great  coal-mining  regions. 

Iron  ore  is  often  found  close  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where 
it  is  collected  by  pick,  shovel,  and  scraper ;  but  iron  ore,  as  well  as  the 
ores  of  the  other  metals,  is  also  mined  underground  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  coal  is  mined. 

Of  all  the  metals,  iron  is  the  most  useful.  It  can  be  molded  and  ham- 
mered into  any  shape ;  it  can  be  drawn  into  fine  wire,  or  rolled  into 
thin  sheets ;  it  can  be  made  so  soft  that  a  pin  will  scratch  it,  or,  in  the 
form  of  steel,  so  hard  that  it  will  cut  glass.  Make  a  list  of  ten  uses  to 
which  iron  and  steel  are  put. 

Gold  and  Silver  are  much  scarcer  than  many  of  the 
more  useful  metals.  They  do  not  wear  away  by  rusting, 
as  most  metals  do,  and  one  or  both  of  them  are  used  as 
money  throughout  the  civilized  world.  Both  metals  are 
usually  found  in  veins  in  very  old  rocks,  or  in  volcanic  rocks 
of  mountain  regions.     How  are  these  veins  formed  1  (p.  15.) 

The  rock  bearing  the  gold  is 
crushed  to  the  finest  powder  in  a 
"stamp  mill,"  and  the  powder  is 
then  washed  with  water  containing 
a  substance  which  extracts  all  the 
gold,  but  leaves  the  rock. 

Fine  pieces  of  gold,  or  "  gold 
dust,"  are  also  found  in  the  detritus 
of  gold-bearing  rock,  from  which 
they  may  be  separated  by  washing 
and  sometimes  by  collecting  on 
quicksilver. 

Stone  is  obtained  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  either  from  the  detritus  or 
from  quarries  opened  in  the  solid 


Machine  shop,  New  York. 

rock.  The  stone  is  used  not  only  for  building  purposes,  but  also  for 
making  roads  and  pavements.  Slate  rock  is  used  for  roofs,  and  much 
limestone  as  a  flux  in  smelting  iron.  Some  limestone,  when  highly 
heated,  yields  the  cement  and  lime  of  which  mortar  is  made. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bring  to  the  school  collection  specimens  of 
minerals,  metallic  ores,  or  stones.  Bring  to  school  an  account  of  one 
mineral  product,  or  of  one  method  of  mining  or  quarrying.  Write  next 
day  a  reproduction  of  the  account  given  by  one  of  your  schoolmates. 


MAN. 


41 


MANUFACTURING. 

In  olden  times  to  manufacture  meant  "to  make  by 
hand,"  but  now  in  all  civilized  countries  it  means  also  "  to 
make  by  machinery."  The  amount  and  quality  of  the 
manufactures  of  a  country  to  a  great  extent  determine  the 
civilization  of  that  country. 

After  man  ceased  to  manufacture  entirely  by  hand,  he  used  falling 
water  to  turn  the  wheels  of  his  machinery,  and  many  towns  were  built 
where  waterfalls  exist ;  but  water  power,  though  much  better  than  hand 
power,  is  not  so  great  and  certain  a 
labor  saver  as  the  steam  engine.  The 
first  rude  engine  was  invented  less  than 
200  years  ago.  Much  more  recently  it 
was  discovered  that  a  steam  engine 
could  be  made  to  drag  trains  of  cars 
over  the  land,  and  to  propel  vessels 
through  the  water,  and  still  later  that 
it  could  be  made  to  generate  the  won- 
derful power  called  electricity. 

With  engines  to  run  machinery,  and 
with  railroads  and  steamships  to  bring 


linen  is  made  ;  and  jute,  used  for  making  coarse  cloth.    Find  out  about 
silk,  flax,  hemp,  and  jute, —  what  they  are  and  where  obtained. 

Metals.  Which  is  the  most  important  and  useful  of  the  metals? 
Several  times  as  much  iron  and  steel  are  used  in  manufactures  as  of  all 
the  other  metals  put  together.  Copper,  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  are  also  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  hardware.  Copper  wire  is  used  in  electrical  work. 
Tinware  is  made  of  sheet  iron,  to  which  has  been  given  a  thin  coating 
of  tin.  Shot  and  water  pipes  are  made  of  lead,  and  white  lead  is  used 
in  mixing  paints.  Zinc  is  used  as  a  coating  for  iron,  forming  what  is 
called  galvanized  iron;    and  when  mixed  with  copper  it  forms  brass. 


Old-time  method  ot  weaving  and  spinning. 


Food.  The  converting  of  the 
various  grains  into  flour  and 
meal,  the  canning  of  fish,'  meat, 
fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  the 
making  and  refining  of  sugar  af- 
ford employment  for  thousands 
of  people.  Name  the  two  great 
sugar-producing  plants. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read 
or  recite  "  The  Shoemakers,"  by 
Whittier.  Find  out  about  James 
Watt,  Sir  Richard  Arkwright, 
Eli  Whitney,  Elias  Howe,  Rob- 
ert Hoe,  or  any  other  great  in- 
ventor who  has  improved  meth- 
ods of  manufacture. 


fuel  and  raw  material  and  to  distribute  the  manufactured  goods,  manu- 
facturing towns  grow  up  at  convenient  localities  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  Countries  in  which  coal  and  iron  are  extensively  mined  have 
become  famous  for  their  manufactures. 

While  labor-saving  machines  have  decreased  the  number  of  hands 
required  to  make  a  certain  number  of  articles,  they  have  made  the 
articles  cheaper,  so  that  more  people  can  buy  them.  To  supply  the  in- 
creased demand  more  hands  are  employed  in  manufacturing  than  ever 
before,  so  that  now  about  one  fourth  of  the  people  in  the  civilized  world 
are  engaged  in  this  industry. 

Manufacturing  Regions.  The  great  manufacturing  re- 
gions of  the  world  are  about  the  same  as  the  great  coal-  and 
iron-mining  regions.    Where  are  they  ?  • 

Chief  Manufactures.  The  chief  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  the  world  are  the  weaving  of  cloth,  the  smelting 
and  working  of  metals,  and  the  preparing  and  preserving 
Of  food. 

Textiles.  Cotton  is  the  most  important  cloth-making  material. 
Where  are  the  great  cotton  fields  of  the  world  1  There  the  fiber  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  seed  and  then  pressed  into  bales  by  machinery.  Ocean 
steamers  or  railways  carry  the  bales  of  cotton  to  the  mills  and  factories, 
where  the  fiber  is  cleaned,  spun,  and  woven  into  cloth.  If  a  great  cloth- 
ing manufactory  buys  the  cloth,  machinery  is  also  employed  to  cut  and 
sew  it  into  garments. 

Somewhat  as  cotton  is  treated,  so  also  is  wool ;  silk ;  flax,  of  which 


Interior  of  a  woolen  mill,  Massachusetts. 

COMMERCE. 

Different  parts  of  the  world  produce  different  things, 
and  what  is  produced  in  one  part  is  often  needed  in  an- 
other ;  hence  the  people  of  different  regions  sell  their  sur- 
plus products  to  one  another.  The  buying,  selling,  and 
carrying  of  commodities  make  the  industries  of  trade 
and  transportation,  which  together  are  called  commerce. 
When  commerce  is  carried  on  between  parts  of  the  same 
country  it  is  known  as  domestic  commerce,  but  trade  be- 
tween different  countries  is  called  foreign  commerce. 

Railroads  and  steamships  have  made  transportation  so  cheap,  rapid, 
and  certain  that  it  has  become  profitable  in  many  cases,  not  only  to  send 
raw  materials  to  some  distant  region,  nearer  coal  and  iron  mines,  to  be 
manufactured,  but  for  the  people  of  manufacturing  regions  to  have 
much  of  their  food  brought  to  them  from  distant  agricultural  regions. 

Thus,  much  wool  from  Australia,  cotton  from  our  own  country,  and 
silk  from  Asia  are  sent  to  Europe  to  be  sold  and  made  into  cloth,  part  of 
which  is  often  sent  back  to  be  sold  in  the  very  countries  where  the  raw 


42 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 


materials  were  raised ;  and  the  people  of 
the  western  part  of  Europe  rely  upon  the 
people  of  the  United  States  for  much  of  their 
wheat,  flour,  beef,  and  pork,  and  upon  Aus- 
tralia for  part  of  their  mutton.  Nearly  all 
the  tea  used  in  the  world  comes  from  Asia ; 
nearly  all  the  coffee  that  we  use  comes  from 
■  South  America  ;  and  most  of  our  sugar  from 
the  West  Indies,  South  America,  and  the  is- 
lands of  the  Pacific.  India  rubber  comes 
from  the  equatorial  regions  of  South  America, 
Africa,  and  southeastern  Asia,  and  many 
people  in  all  the  grand  divisions  light  their 
homes  at  night  by  burning  kerosene  made 
of  the  petroleum  from  the  wells  in  the  United 
States. 

Because  of  railroads  and  steamships  and 
labor-saving  machinery,  all  these,  and  hun- 
dreds of  other  things,  can  be  manufactured 
and  transported  many  thousands  of   miles 

and  then  sold  at  a  profit,  and  yet  are  so  cheap  that  few  people  are  too 
poor  to  buy  and  use  them. 

As  only  the  products  not  used  at  home  are  exported  to  other  countries, 
foreign  commerce  forms  a  very  small  part  (about  one  seventh)  of  the 
whole  commerce  of  the  world. 

Means  of  Transportation.  Goods  are  transported 
not  only  on  railroads  and  ships,  but  also  by  teams  on  com- 
mon roads  and  by  boats  on  rivers 
and  canals.  Teaming  is  necessary 
in  carrying  goods  to  all  the  com- 
mercial routes,  but  it  is  the  most 
expensive  mode  of  transportation. 
.  A  team  can  di'ag  so  small  a  load,  and 
travels  so  slowly,  that  if  the  distance 
is  great  the  food  and  care  of  the 
team  will  cost  as  much  as  the  load 
is  worth.  Transportation  by  river, 
canal,  or  sailing  vessel  on  the  ocean 
is  very  cheap,  though  much  slower 
than  by  railroad  or  steamship,  and 
this  method  of  transportation  is  still 
much  used,  especially  for  heavy, bulky  articles;  but  in  the 
more  civilized  countries  most  of  the  traffic  is  by  railroad, 
and  about  half  of  the  ocean  traffic  is  by  steamship. 

Aids  to  Commerce.  Telegraph  cables,  laid  on  the  sea 
bottom,  connect  all  the  continents,  so  that  information  can 
be  sent  instantly  to  the  most  distant  countries ;  and  postal 
routes  have  been  established,  by  which,  at  little  cost,  letters 
may  be  quickly  and  surely  delivered  at  almost  any  place 
in  the  world.  The  telegraph,  the  telephone,  and  the  post 
office  are  invaluable  aids  to  commerce. 

In  order  to  promote  foreign  commerce,  each  country  has,  in  all  the 
large  trading  cities  in  the  world,  men  called  consuls  to  look  after  the 
interests  of  its  sailors  and  merchants  who  trade  there,  and  to  collect 
information  about  what  the  people  of  the  country  produce  and  what  they 
need.  Most  civilized  countries  also  issue  maps  of  the  coasts  and  har- 
bors, and  build  lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations  along  the  coasts. 
Many  countries  also  deepen  their  harbors  and  rivers  and  build  canals 
connecting  them.  In  some  countries  the  government  owns  the  railroads, 
and  in  nearly  all  civilized  countries  it  has  aided  in  building  them. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  a  list  of  the  articles  on  the  breakfast 
table  this  morning  and  try  to  find  where  each  article  came  from,  and 


how  it  was  manufactured.  Write  a  history 
of  one  article  on  your  list.  Find  whether  any 
article  produced  in  your  neighborhood  enters 
into  our  foreign  or  domestic  commerce.  Find 
out  ahout  Robert  Fulton,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse, 
George  Stephenson,  Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
or  any  other  inventor  who  has  improved  the 
methods  of  commerce. 


TOWNS  AND  CITIES. 

Use.     Towns  and  cities  are  the 
places  where  the  trade  and  manu- 


An  American  railway  train. 


facturing  of  the  world  are  chiefly 
centered.  Neither  grain  and  cattle 
for  food,  nor  cotton  and  wool  for 
clothing,  nor  lumber  and  iron  for  the 
hundreds  of  useful  things  made  from 
them,  nor  petroleum  and  coal  for 
light  and  fuel,  nor  any  other  raw  ma- 
terials are  usually  produced  in  cities. 
But,  if  we  want  to  buy  any  of  these 
things,  we  do  not  seek  the  place 
where  it  is  produced;  we  go  to  a 
town  or  a  city,  where  all  kinds  of  products  are  sent  to  be 
manufactured  and  sold.  Thus  a  city  is  a  convenience  both 
to  producers  and  to  purchasers,  and  therefore  it  must  be 
within  easy  reach  of  both.  Hence  cities  have  usually 
grown  up  at  good  harbors,  or  on  navigable  rivers  or  lakes, 
or  at  the  junction  of  railroads ;  at  waterfalls  or  rapids,  or 
near  mines  of  some  kind.  Why  are  such  places  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  cities  ?  Among  the  cities  and  towns,  the 
one  that  can  be  most  easily  reached  by  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  people,  and  by  the  greatest  amount  and  variety  of 
products,  is  sure  to  grow  to  be  the  largest. 

Try  to  find  out  why  the  town  in  which  you  live,  or  the  town  nearest 
your  home,  is  located  where  it  is.  It  was  built  there  for  some  reason, 
which  probably  has  to  do  with  trade  or  manufacturing.  A  town,  how- 
ever, may  grow  up  about  a  great  school  or  college,  or  at  a  place  selected 
as  the  seat  of  government,  or  capital,  of  a  country,  or  because  it  is  a  con- 
venient or  beautiful  place  of  residence  for  those  doing  business  in  a 
much  larger  neighboring  city  or  town. 

Features.  The  most  striking  feature  of  a  large  city  is 
the  great  number  of  people  that  are  crowded  within  it. 
The  streets  are  lined  on  both  sides  with  houses,  from  two 


MAN. 


43 


and  three  to  twenty  stories  high,  built  close  side  by 
side,  often  with  only  a  single  wall  between. 

Parts.  A  part  of  the  city  is  composed  largely  of  great  whole- 
sale stores  and  warehouses,  banks,  and  factories ;  it  is  here  that  the 
business  of  the  great  region  that  sells  its  products  in  the  city  is 
mostly  transacted.  The  raw  materials  are  received  here  and  are 
sold  to  the  manufacturers,  and  it  is  here  that  the  manufactured 


A  business  street,  New  York. 


Advantages  and  Disadvantages. 

Some  of  these  features  are  unneces- 
sary in  the  country  or  in  villages 
and  towns  where  the  people  are  less 
crowded  together,  but  all  of  these 
and  many  other  subdivisions  of  labor 
are  necessary  for  health  and  com- 
fort in  large  cities.  While  those 
who  live  in  cities  enjoy  certain  con- 
veniences and  advantages,  life  in  the 
country  is  generally  more  healthful 
and  is  much  freer  from  constraint. 
It  should  be  remembered  also  that 
the  city  depends  absolutely  upon  the 
country,  not  only  for  its  daily  bread, 
but  for  the  materials  in  which  it 
trades  and  which  it  manufactures. 

Supplemental    Work.     If    you 

live  in  the  city,  write  an  ac- 
count of  some  visit  which 
you  have  made  to  the  country  ; 

A  street  cleaner. 


Elevated  railroad. 


goods  are  brought  to  be  sold  in  large  quantities 
to  any  part  of  the  world. 

This  part  of  the  city  is  crowded  with  workers 
during  the  business  day,  but  at  night  and  on  holi- 
days it  is  nearly  deserted,  for  the  property  becomes 
so  valuable  for  business  purposes  that  the  homes 
of  the  people  are  forced  into  other  parts  of  the  city, 
often  several  miles  distant. 

The  people  who  live  in  the  city  have  hundreds 
of  personal  wants.  They  must  have  food  and 
clothing  and  shelter  and  many  other  things.  To 
supply  them,  retail  stores  are  established  near  the 
residence  quarter,  and  come  at  last  to  occupy  another  part  of  the  city. 

Thus  nearly  every  great  city  is  really  composed  of  several  parts,  each 
devoted  to  a  different  object  —  there  is  the  part  in  which  the  citizens  live, 
the  retail  part  from  which  the  wants  of  the  citizens  are  supplied,  and  the 
wholesale  and  manufacturing  part.  Which  of  these  parts  is  of  most  use 
to  the  outside  world  ? 

Streets.  The  streets  of  a  city  are  bordered  with  sidewalks,  which, 
together  with  a  central  driveway,  are  paved  or  laid  in  asphalt  to  prevent 
them  from  quickly  wearing  into  ruts  and  becoming  impassable  in  wet 
weather.  Currents  of  water,  gas,  and  electricity  are  conveyed  along 
the  streets  in  great  lines  of  buried  pipes,  from  which  smaller  pipes  carry 
them  to  every  house  and  often  to  every  room.  The  liquid  refuse  from 
the  houses  flows  in  other  pipes  to  great  sewers,  which  are  built  deep  be- 
neath the  streets,  and  which  also  receive  the  surface  drainage  and  carry 
all  these  impurities  out  of  the  city.  A  great  army  of  men  with  brooms, 
hoes,  and  carts  are  constantly  employed  in  removing  the  dirt  and  snow 
from  the  streets,  and  the  ashes,  garbage,  and  rubbish  from  the  houses. 

Public  Conveyance.  Through  many  of  the  streets  are  laid  tracks  on 
which  cars,  propelled  by  horses,  cables,  or  electricity,  run  every  few 
minutes,  day  and  night,  to  carry  the  people  about  the  city.  In  some 
cities  the  residence  part  is  so  far  from  the  business  part,  that  steam  or 
electric  railroads,  running  either  on  trestles  elevated  above  or  in  tunnels 
beneath  the  streets,  are  provided  for  more  rapid  transit.  Another  army  of 
men  are  employed  day  and  night  in  attending  to  the  public  conveyances. 

Protection.  A  thickly  peopled  city  is  always  in  danger  from  fire,  and 
a  third  great  army  of  men  are  employed  to  be  ready  at  any  instant,  day 
or  night,  to  go  with  steam  fire  engines  and  hose  and  ladders  to  put  out 
fires  and  to  save  people  and  property  from  burning  buildings.  A  fourth 
great  army  are  the  police  who  patrol  the  streets  day  and  night  to  pre- 
vent disorder  and  to  protect  life  and  property. 


A  steam  fire  engine. 

if  you  live  in  the  country,  write  a  description  of  the  largest  town  which 
you  have  seen.  Read  or  recite  "  Hymn  of  the  City,"  by  Bryant,  and 
one  selection  from  "  City  Ballads,"  by  Carleton. 


TOPICS  ON  MAN   AND  HIS  PROGRESS. 

I.  Industries.  Procuring  material:  vegetable;  animal;  mineral. 
Transforming  materials :  by  hand ;  by  machinery.  Exchanging  goods  : 
transportation  —  by  land,  by  water ;  trade  —  domestic,  foreign,  whole- 
sale, retail ;  use ;  aids. 

II.  Population.  By  races:  white;  yellow;  black.  By  number:  dense; 
moderate  ;  sparse.  By  occupations  :  producers ;  manufacturers ;  mer- 
chants. 

III.  Advance.    In  intelligence;  in  culture;  in  government. 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

NORTH   AMERICA. 


The  Three  Tetons, —  Rocky  Mountains,  Wyoming. 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES. 

Location,  Extent,  and  Coast  Features.  What  part  of  the  conti- 
nental plateau  is  occupied  by  North  America?  (p.  8.)  What  strait 
separates  it  from  Eurasia?  What  isthmus  joins  it  to  South  America? 
What  ocean  is  east  of  it ;  west  of  it  ?    In  what  zones  does  it  he  ? 

Using  the  scale  of  miles,  find  the  width  of  North  America  at  its 
widest  part;  its  length  from  Bering  Sea  to  Panama.  How  does  it 
rank  among  the  grand  divisions  in  size  ?  About  what  proportion  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth  does  it  contain  ?    (p.  157.) 

What  is  its  general  shape  ?  What  great  indentation  has  the  northern 
coast  ?  Name  two  peninsulas  of  the  northern  coast.  What  two  great 
gulfs  indent  the  east  coast  ?  Name  three  peninsulas  on  this  coast.  What 
gulf  aud  sea  are  on  the  west  coast  ?  What  two  peninsulas  project  from  the 
west  coast  ?  Which  of  the  coasts  is  most  indented  ?  Which  is  least  in- 
dented? Off  which  coast  are  the  largest  islands?  Which  is  the  largest 
island?  What  island  is  east  of  Greenland?  What  large  island  is  east 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ?  What  island  chain  is  east  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ?  What  sea  does  this  chain  partly  inclose  ?  Near  what  part  of 
the  west  coast  are  there  many  islands  ? 

Surface.*  Review  the  lesson  on  the  highlands  and  lowlands  of  the 
the  world  (p.  10).  In  which  part  of  North  America  is  the  great  high- 
land region  ?  In  what  direction  does  it  extend  ?  In  what  part  of  the 
continent  is  it  widest  ?  What  long  mountain  chain  extends  through 
the  central  part  of  the  highland  region  ?  What  three  ranges  border 
the  highland  on  the  west  ? 


*  In  the  map  of  North  America  on  the  opposite  page,  and  in  the  physical 
maps  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  book,  the  dark  green  indicates  the  parts 
of  the  lowlands  which  are  less  than  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  while  the  light  green 
indicates  such  parts  of  the  lowlands  as  have  an  elevation  between  1000  and 
2000  feet.  The  lightest  buff  tint  shows  the  lowest  parts  of  highlands,  where 
the  elevation  is  between  2000  and  4000  feet ;  the  medium  buff  tint  shows  re- 
gions between  4000  and  6000  feet ;  the  darkest  buff  tint  shows  the  parts  of 
highlands  which  are  over  6000  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  lines  separating  these  different  tints  and  colors  indicate  definite  eleva- 
tions, and  are  called  contour  lines ;  thus  the  line  between  the  dark  and  light 
green  is  called  the  "  contour  of  1000  feet,"  for  every  point  on  that  line  is 
1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


What  two  highland  regions  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  America  ? 
Compare  the  eastern  and  western  highlands  in  length  and  breadth. 

Where  is  the  great  lowland  plain  of  North  America  ?  In  what  gen- 
eral direction  does  its  northern  part  slope  ?  In  what  direction  does  its 
central  part  slope ;  its  southern  part?  Compare  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coast  plains  in  width. 

The  great  mountain  ranges  of  the  west  reach  heights  of 
from  two  to  nearly  four  miles  above  the  sea.  The  plateau 
from  which  they  rise  is  itself  a  mile  high.  Find  Mount 
McKinley,  in  the  north,  and  the  volcano  Orizaba,  in  the 
south.  Mount  McKinley  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  grand 
division.  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  highlands  slope 
gradually  and  imperceptibly  to  the  Central  Lowland. 
West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  highlands  are  broken 
by  a  great  number  of  short  mountain  ranges,  and  in 
many  places  they  are  traversed  by  deep,  impassable  can- 
yons. Throughout  the  western  part  of  the  highland  re- 
gion there  are  numerous  volcanoes,  many  of  which,  both 
in  the  north  and  in  the  south,  are  still  active.  Old  out- 
flows of  lava,  known  as  "  lava  fields,"  are  common  through- 
out the  region,  and  earthquakes  occur  frequently.  What 
do  these  features  indicate  respecting  the  age  of  this 
highland  region? 

The  eastern  highlands,  though  less  extensive,  are  much 
older  than  the  western  highlands.  They  have  been  worn 
down  by  ages  of  weathering  until  their  highest  peaks  are 
but  little  higher  than  the  plateaus  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  the  Appalachian  Mountains  find  Mount 
Mitchell.  It  is  the  highest  peak.  Find  Mount  Washing- 
ton. It  is  the  loftiest  peak  in  the  northern  part.  Neither 
is  much  over  a  mile  high.  The  Laurentian  plateau  is 
generally  low,  with  many  isolated  hills. 


45 


46 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Drainage.  Name  the  two  longest  rivers  of 
the  Central  Lowland.  Which  flows  south  ?  What 
*  great  river  basin  occupies  the  part  of  the  Central 
Lowland  between  the  Mississippi  and  Mackenzie 
basins  ?  In  what  general  direction  does  the  Nelson- 
Saskatchewan  River  flow?  In  what  part  of  the 
Central  Lowland  are  the  Great  Lakes  situated? 
The  divide  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi system  is  so  low  that  in  some  places  the 
water  of  the  lakes  may  be  easily  turned  into  the 
Mississippi  system.  Through  what  river  does  the 
water  of  the  Great  Lakes  reach  the  ocean  ?  Into 
what  does  the  Rio  Grande  empty?  What  is  the 
general  direction  of  its  flow  ? 

Name  the  three  largest  rivers  of  the  Pacific 
slope.     In  what  mountains  do  they  all  rise? 

In  what  direction  do  most  of  the  rivers  of  the 
Atlantic  plain  flow  ?  How  do  they  compare  in 
length  with  those  of  the  Central  Lowland ;  with 
those  of  the  Pacific  slope  ? 

Most  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  grand  division  have  their  head  waters 
in  what  divide  ?    What  is  the  only  exception  among  the  great  rivers  ? 

What  parts  of  North  America  have  no  drainage  to  the  sea  ?    What 
becomes  of  the  water  of  these  regions  ? 


The  Missouri  is  really  the  main  stream  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  system.  From  the  table  on  p.  159  tell  how  the 
Mississippi-Missouri  ranks  among  the  world's  great  rivers 
in  length.    It  is  useful  as  a  commercial  highway. 

Just  below  the  Great  Lakes  the  St.  Lawrence  is  ob- 
structed by  rapids,  so  that  canals  are  necessary  for  the 
ascent  of  boats;  but  below  the  rapids  large  seagoing 
vessels  ply  during  that  part  of  the  year  when  the  river 
and  gulf  are  not  blocked  by  ice. 

Into  what  waters  does  the  Mackenzie  empty ;  the  Yu- 
kon ;  the  Colorado ;  the  Mississippi  ?  All  these  waters, 
at  the  points  where  the  rivers  empty,  are  nearly  tideless, 
and  consequently  these  four  large  rivers  have  built  great 
deltas.  How  were  these  deltas  formed  ?  There  is  a  bar 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  though  it  is  well  covered 
with  water  even  at  low  tide.  The  estuary  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence is  a  submerged  valley. 

The  northern  half  of  the  great  Central  Lowland  has 
thousands  of  lakes.  Why  is  this  part  of  the  grand  divi- 
sion rich  in  lakes?  (p.  20.)  They  are  so  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  are  so  close  together,  that  the  usual  mode 

of  travel  is  by  canoes; 
these  are  carried  on 
the  shoulders  of  the 
travelers  from  one 
lake  to  another  across 
the  short  divides. 
Such  a  divide  is  there 
called  a  portage,  from 
a  word  which  means 
"  to  carry." 


A    I     ways 

HEAT  BELTS 


Climate.  What  part  of 
North  America  has  cold 
winters  and  temperate 
summers?  Which  part  has 
temperate  winters  and  hot 
summers  ?  Which  parts 
are  always   hot?     Which 


parts  are  always  temperate?  Which  parts  have 
cold  winters  and  hot  summers?  What  part  of 
North  America  lies  in  the  trade-wind  region? 
(map,  p.  26.)  What  winds  prevail  over  the  greater 
part  of  North  America  ? 

The  central  part  of  the  west  coast  is 
always  temperate,  because  the  prevail- 
ing westerlies,  which  have  the  nearly 
uniform  temperature  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  warm  the  coast  in  winter  and 
cool  it  in  summer.  By  the  time  the 
winds  reach  the  eastern  coast  they  have  - 
acquired  the  temperature  of  the  land 
over  which  they  have  traveled;  hence 
the  east  coast  is  colder  in  winter  and 
hotter  in  summer  than  the  west  coast. 
Along  the  northwest  coast  the  prevail- 
ing westerly  winds  deposit  copious  rainfall  as  they  ascend 
the  abrupt  slope  of  the  great  highland  region.  What 
part  of  this  coast  is  crossed  by  the  tropical  calms  ?  (p.  26.) 
Are  these  calms  accompanied  by  wet  or  by  dry  weather? 
Hence  the  climate  in  the  region  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia is  quite  dry.  In  the  southern  part  of  North  Amer- 
ica the  northeast  trade  winds  bring  copious  rains  to  the 
east  slopes  in  the  winter  half  of  the  year ;  but  in  summer, 
when  the  heat  equator  lies  farthest  north,  monsoon  winds 
blow  toward  it  from  the  Pacific  and  bring  rain  to  the  south- 
west coasts.  Farther  north,  the  westerly  winds,  which  have 
lost  their  moisture  on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains,  reach 
the  plateaus  as  dry  winds.  In  the  eastern  half  of  the  grand 
division,  however,  where  the  southerly  winds  in  cyclones 
bring  vapor  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic,  there 
is  abundant  rainfall. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  a  circle  to  represent  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, and  make  a  sketch  map  showing  what  part  of  the  hemisphere  is 
covered  by  North  America.  Draw,  on  a  larger  scale,  the  outline  of  this 
grand  division.  Model  North  America.  Write  a  comparison  of  the  cli- 
mates on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  North  America. 


VEGETATION  AND  ANIMALS. 

In  what  part  of  North  America  are  there  dense  forests?  Why  are 
these  regions  densely  wooded?  Where  are  the  regions  of  more  open 
forests?  Where  are  the 
regions  of  grassy  lands; 
of  tundras?  What  are 
tundras?  Where  are  the 
desert  regions?  Why  are 
these  parts  of  North  Amer- 
ica deserts  ? 

Animals.  (Review 
the  lesson  on  the  North 
American  life  region, 
pp.  31, 32.)  Along  the 
Arctic  coasts  of  North 
America  the  largest 
animals  are  the  polar 
bear  and  the  musk  ox. 
Farther  south,  in  the 
open  forests,  range  the 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


47 


Some  animals  of  North  America. 


moose,  the  elk,  and  vast  herds  of  woodland  caribou,  or 
American  reindeer,  and  many  small  fur-bearing  animals, 
such  as  the  beaver,  otter,  and  mink.  Why  are  fur-bearing 
animals  found  in  this  part  of  the  grand  division  ?  In  the 
highlands  of  the  west  are  found  the  terrible  grizzly  bear, 
the  shy  bighorn  sheep,  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat,  and  the 
puma,  or  American  panther. 

Throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  grand  division,  south 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  larger  native  animals  have  been 
nearly  exterminated  and  replaced  by  yast  numbers  of  do- 
mestic animals, —  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  chick- 
ens,—  whose  ancestors  were  brought  to  America  from  Eu- 
rasia by  the  white  man. 

In  the  dry  transitional  region  of  the  southwest  are  found 
some  animals  of  both  the  North  American  and  the  South 
American  region,  as  well  as  many  peculiar  scorpions,  liz- 
ards, and  other  reptiles. 

In  the  hot  lowlands  of  the  southern  part  of  the  grand 
division,  animals  of  the  South  American  region  are  com- 
mon, such  as  alligators,  tapirs,  monkeys,  vampire  bats, 
and  jaguars,  as  well  as  brilliantly  colored  parrots  and 
many  kinds  of  humming  birds. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  a  list  of  the  trees  growing  in  your 
neighborhood.  Tell  of  each,  if  you  can,  whether  it  is  native  or  has 
been  planted.  Make  a  list  of  the  wild  and  domestic  animals  found  in 
yonr  neighborhood. 


MAN. 


About  six  hundred  years  before  Columbus  discovered 
America,  the  Northmen,  bold  sea  rovers  from  countries 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  Europe,  made  settlements  in 
Iceland  and,  later,  in  Greenland.  Both  these  islands  now 
belong  to  Denmark,  a  country  of  northwestern  Europe. 

When  did  Columbus  discover  America?  From  what  country  in 
Europe  did  he  sail  ?  What  race  did  the  Spanish  find  in  North  America  ? 
Some  of  the  Indians  were  savages,  but  most  of  them  had  learned  to 
make  bows  and  arrows,  pottery,  and  other  rude  utensils,  and  had  thus 
reached  some  stage  of  barbarism.  West  and  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  in  the  narrow  part  of  the  grand  division,  where  most  of  the  In- 
dians lived,  they  had  advanced  nearly  to  the  lowest  stage  of  civilization. 

After  Columbus  discovered  it,  North  America  was  ex- 
plored by  the  Spanish,  French,  and  English.  Still  later 
the  Russians  came  across  Bering  Sea  and  established  fur- 
trading  posts  in  Alaska. 

Find  Mexico  and  Central  America.  The  Spanish  explored  and  made 
settlements  in  this  region  and  in  the  West  Indies.  Find  Canada.  The 
French  made  settlements  in  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  which  they  called 
Canada,  and  explored  the  Great  Lake  region  and  the  Mississippi  valley. 
Find  the  peninsulas  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Florida.  The  English  estab- 
lished thirteen  colonies  along  the  Atlantic  coast  between  these  peninsulas, 
and  also  explored  the  northern  part  of  the  continent. 

Several  wars  occurred  between  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Spain,  after  which  France  gave  up  to  Great  Britain  Can- 


UNITED   STATES. 


49 


POPULATION 

H3  Sparse 
^^Moderately  dense 
^QDenee 


ada  and  the  land  claimed  by  her  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  Great  Britain 
still  owns  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

In  1776  the  thirteen  English  colonies 
south  of  Canada  declared  their  indepen- 
dence, and  united  to  form  the  republic  in 
which  we  live.  What  is  its  name  ?  After 
the  Revolution,  Great  Britain  ceded  to 
the  United  States  the  country  south  of 
Canada  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi. 
Later,  the  United  States  acquired  the 
region  west  to  the  Pacific,  bought  Alaska 
from  Russia,  annexed  the  Hawaiian  and 
other  islands  in  the  Pacific,  and  obtained 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies. 

Many  thousands  of  white  men  from  western  and 
centra]   Europe  have  come  across  the  Atlantic 

Ocean  to  seek  homes  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  until  their  de- 
scendants now  far  outnumber  the  original  Indian  inhabitants.  The 
Indians  have  been  gradually  driven  westward  and  northward  into  the 
drier  and  colder  and  hence  less  desirable  parts  of  the  grand  division  by 
the  ever-advancing  tide  of  civilized  white  settlers. 

Not  long  after  the  United  States  was  formed,  the  Spanish 
colonies  west  and  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  secured 
their  independence  from  Spain  and  became  republics. 
What  is  the  largest  of  these  Spanish  republics?  South 
of  this  there  are  six  small  Spanish-speaking  republics, 
which  together  make  up  Central  America. 

There  were  always  many  more  Indians  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
than  in  the  wider  part  of  the  grand  division  further  north,  and  not 
nearly  so  many  white  men  have  settled  in  these  countries,  so  that  now 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  people  living  in  Spanish  North  America 
are  either  Indians  or  people  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  blood.  The 
Indians  and  these  half-breeds  are  four  times  as  numerous  as  the  white 
population  of  that  region,  and  form  about  one  eighth  of  the  population 
of  North  America. 

Find  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  (p.  96.)  Spain  once  claimed 
all  the  West  Indies,  she  gradually  lost  all  but  these  two, 
and  in  1898  she  lost  these  also.  Find  Jamaica  and  the 
Bahamas;  Great  Britain  now  owns  these  and  many  of 
the  other  small  islands.  France,  Holland,  and  Denmark 
also  own  islands  in  the  group.  Find  the  island  of  Haiti. 
It  is  divided  between  two  independent  republics. 


When  the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  West 
Indies  they  enslaved  the  inhabitants  and  treated 
them  so  cruelly  that  soon  all  the  Indians  died. 
Then  negro  slaves  were  brought  from  Africa  to 
the  islands  and  afterwards  to  the  United  States. 
Slavery  has  long  since  been  abolished,  but  the  de- 
scendants of  these  negroes  still  form  a  large  part  of 
the  population  in  the  southern  United  States  and 
in  the  West  Indies.  They  are  about  as  numerous 
as  all  the  Indians  in  North  America. 

Name  the  political  divisions  of  North  America. 
Which  are  independent  countries  ?  Which  belong 
to  European  countries  ?  Which  are  English-speak- 
ing?   Which  are  Spanish- speaking? 

What  is  the  population  of  North  America? 
(p.  157.)  What  part  of  the  population  of  the  world 
is  that?  How  does  North  America  rank  among 
the  grand  divisions  in  population  ?  As  a  whole, 
North  America  is  very  thinly  peopled.  It  has  only 
one  fourth  as  many  people  as  it  would  have  if  the 
population  of  the  world  were  evenly  distributed  over  the  land  surface. 
From  this  map  tell  what  part  of  North  America  is  most  thinly  peopled. 
What  races  live  in  this  region  ?  Where  is  the  largest  region  of  dense 
and  moderately  dense  population  ?  Locate  the  races  in  this  region.  In 
what  country  is  most  of  it  ?  It  contains  about  three  fourths  of  all  the 
people  in  North  America.  About  how  many  people  is  that  ?  In  what 
countries  is  the  next  largest' region  of  moderately  dense  population? 
What  races  live  in  this  region  ?  More  than  nine  tenths  of  all  the  Indians 
in  North  America  are  found  in  this  region. 

Supplemental  Work.  Sketch  a  map  of  North  America  and  indicate 
the  various  regions  originally  settled  by  different  European  nations. 
Read  the  story  of  "  Evangeline."  Find  in  a  history  a  map  showing  the 
growth  of  the  United  States  in  territory,  and  put  a  copy  on  the  board 
with  colored  crayons. 


TOPICS   ON  NORTH  AMERICA. 

I.  History.  Of  continent:  old  part;  new  part;  rising  regions 
—  highlands,  coasts ;  sinking  regions  —  highlands,  coasts.  Of  man :  dis- 
coveries; conquest ;  formation  of  nations  —  United  States,  Canada,  Span- 
ish republics;  treatment  of  Indians;  of  negroes. 

II.  Physical  Description.  Location.  Surroundings.  Extent. 
Shape:  general  shape ;  projections;  indentations;  river  mouths  —  estu- 
aries, deltas.  Surface:  highlands  —  western,  eastern;  lowlands  —  cen- 
tral, western,  eastern;  divides — continental,  lesser;  slopes  —  Pacific, 
Great  Basin,  Central,  Atlantic.  Climate  :  temperature ;  winds ;  rainfall. 
III.  Life.  Vegetable:  forests— northern, eastern,  western, southern; 
plains  —  tundras,  pasture  lands,  farming  lands.  Animal:  northern; 
western;  eastern;  southern.    Human:  races;  nations;  distribution. 


THE  UNITED   STATES. 


THE   ATLANTIC   PLAIN. 

Find  Long  Island,  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  What  river  empties  at  its 
western  end  ? 

South  of  the  Hudson  River  the  eastern  half  of  the  At- 
lantic plain  is  low,  flat,  and  sandy.  The  coast  is  fringed 
with  barrier  beaches  inclosing  long,  narrow  lagoons,  and 
is  bordered  with  wide  salt  marshes.  The  sluggish  streams 
flow  in  wide  flood  plains,  and,  as  the  ocean  tides  ascend 
the  larger  streams  through  the  width  of  the  region,  it  may 
be  called  the  Tidewater  region.    Find  it  on  the  map. 


West  of  the  Tidewater  region  the  Atlantic  plain  rises 
more  rapidly.  The  swift  streams  have  cut  wide  and  rather 
deep  valleys,  leaving  knolls  and  uplands  of  moderate  ele- 
vation between.    This  is  the  foothill  or  Piedmont  region. 

The  boundary  between  these  two  regions  is  often  called  the  Fall  line, 
because  falls  or  rapids  occur  on  nearly- all  the  streams  where  they  cross  > 
it.     The  larger  streams  are  navigable  from  the  coast  to  these  falls,  and 
thus  the  Fall  line  has  determined  the  location  of  many  cities  and  towns. 
Give  two  reasons  why  this  is  a  favorable  location  for  a  town. 

Ages  ago  the  seacoast  was  at  the  Fall  line.  The  Piedmont  had  long 
before  been  rough  highland,  but  ages  of  erosion  had  lowered  its  surface 


50 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


almost  to  sea  level,  reducing  it  to  a  low  peneplain  (p.  18),  while  the  de- 
tritus worn  from  it  was  deposited  in  nearly  level  layers  on  the  sea  bot- 
tom to  the  east  of  the  Fall  line,  where  it  gradually  hardened  into  rock. 
Then  both  regions  were  slowly  upheaved,  and  the  newly  made  layers 
of  rock  became  the  low,  flat  Tidewater  region.  The  upheaval  of 
the  Piedmont  region  quickened  the  current  of  its  streams  and  en- 
abled them  to  cut  their  present  valleys  in  its  nearly  level  surface  and 
render  it  somewhat  rough  and  hilly  again.  Thus  the  Tidewater  region 
was  made  beneath  the  sea,  while  the  Piedmont  region  was  formed  by  pro- 
longed erosion.  After  river  valleys  had  been  worn  in  the  Tidewater 
region  some  parts  of  it  sank  slightly,  permitting  the  sea  to  extend  far  up 
the  valleys  to  form  estuaries.  Find  New  York,  Delaware,  and  Chesa- 
peake bays.    They  were  made  in  this  way. 

Northeast  of  the  Hudson  River  the  Atlantic  plain  is 
narrower  and  is  composed  mainly  of  the  Piedmont  region, 
which  extends  in  most  places  to  the  seacoast.  There  its 
hard  rocks  form  bold  headlands  and  high,  rocky  islets, 
between  which  are  deep  fiords  and  sheltered  sounds.  The 
whole  region  is  covered  with  the  remains  of  the  old  Lau- 
rentian  glacier — gravels,  clays,  huge  bowlders,  and  round- 
backed  glacial  hills.  Many  of  the  old  valleys  were 
dammed  or  partly  filled  by  the  glacial  drift,  above  which 
lakes  formed,  and  the  streams  thus  turned  from  their  old 
courses  have  had  to  cut  new  channels  in  the  hard  rocks. 
These  channels  are  not  yet  worn  down  to  uniform  slopes ; 
therefore  the  streams  abound  in  falls  and  rapids. 

Long  Island  and  the  smaller  islands  east  of  it,  as  well  as  the  hook- 
shaped  peninsula  of  Cape  Cod,  are  largely  composed  of  the  clays  and 
gravels  heaped  up  in  the  terminal  moraine  along  the  melting  end  of  this 
old  glacier. 

TOPICS   ON  THE  ATLANTIC   PLAIN. 

I.  Northern  Part.    Width.    Surface:  hills;  lakes;  soil.    Coast: 
indentations;  projections;  islands. 

II.  Southern  Part.  Western  region :  surface ;  drainage ;  forma- 
tion; name.  Eastern  region:  surface;  coast  —  borders,  indentations; 
drainage;  formation;  name.    Fall  line:  reason  for;  formation;  value. 

THE  APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS. 

What  region  lies  west  of  the  Atlantic  plain  ?  (map,  p.  48. )  Between 
what  two  gulfs  does  this  region  lie  ?  Measure  the  length  of  the  region, 
using  the  scale  of  miles. 

South  of  Hudson  River,  the  eastern  half  of  the  Appa- 
lachian region  consists  of  a  series  of  long,  narrow  moun- 
tain  ridges,  nearly  parallel   to  one  another,   and  sepa- 


The  northern  part  of  the  Appalachian  ridge  and  valley  belt. 

rated  by  wide  and  fertile  valleys.     This  part  of  the  region 
is  called  the  Appalachian  ridge  and  valley  belt. 

The  ridges  are  of  nearly  uniform  height  —  a  little  less  than  half  a 
mile.  They  have  remarkably  smooth  and  even  summits.  The  eastern 
range  is  most  massive  and  irregular.  What  is  it  called  south  of  Po- 
tomac River  ?  It  grows  higher  toward  the  south.  Find  Mount  Mitchell. 
About  how  high  is  it?  (p.  45.)  The  valley  just  west  of  Blue  Ridge  is  the 
longest  and  widest  of  the  Appalachian  valleys.  This  "  Great  Valley  " 
extends  southwest  from  the  Hudson  to  the  Alabama  River. 

The  western  half  of  the  Appalachian  region  is  a  broad 
upland,  having  about  the  same  height  on  the  east  as  the 
Appalachian  ridges,  but  decreasing  in  elevation  toward 
the  west.  The  streams  have  worn  deep,  narrow  valleys 
into  its  surface,  thus  cutting  it  into  a  number  of  de- 
tached plateaus,  called  the  Alleghany  plateaus. 

Trace  the  divide  of  the  Atlantic  slope  southwestward 
from  the  source  of  the  Hudson.  Near  which  side  of  the 
Appalachian  region  does  it  lie  in  the  north;  in  the 
south?     In  the  north  the  larger  streams  flow  southeast 


The  Lehigh  water  gap  near  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania. 


The  Delaware  water  gap  between  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 


UNITED   STATES. 


51 


The  Prairie  plains,  eastern  Kansas. 

to  the  Atlantic,  crossing  the  mountain  ranges  one  after 
another  in  water  gaps.  Name  three  such  streams.  In  the 
south,  on  the  contrary,  the  larger  streams  rise  in  the  east- 
ern range  and  are  tributaries  of  the  Ohio,  to  the  north- 
west. They  have  cut  deep  gorges  through  the  whole 
width  of  the  plateau  to  reach  that  river.  Name  two  such 
streams.  These  gorges  and  water  gaps  are  of  great  use  to 
commerce  in  affording  low  routes  across  the  mountains. 

"When  the  Appalachian  Mountains  were  first  upheaved  above  the  sea, 
the  rocks  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  region  were  thrown  into  many  long 
folds  or  waves_,  which  were  crowded  close  together.  Most  of  the  rock 
layers  in  the  folds  are  quite  soft,  but  some  of  them  are  very  hard.  The 
erosion  of  ages  carried  away  the  tops  of  the  folds  (p.  11),  exposing  the 
edges  of  the  layers  within,  and  reducing  the  region  to  a  peneplain  near  sea 
level.  Then  this  leveled  region  was  again  upheaved,  but  so  slowly  that  the 
larger  streams  flowing  across  it  to  the  sea  could  cut  their  channels  across 
the  hard  layers  as  fast  as  the  region  rose.  The  branches  of  the  larger 
streams,  from  the  right  and  left,  rapidly  eroded  the  soft  layers  as  the 
region  rose,  forming  the  long  Appalachian  valleys,  while  the  hard  layers 
in  the  sides  of  the  old  folds  were  eroded  more  slowly,  and  were  thus  left 
projecting  as  the  parallel,  even-topped  Appalachian  ridges. 

In  the  western  half  of  the  Appalachian  region  the  rock  layers  are 
nearly  level.  The  surface  is  now  composed  of  a  hard  and  thick  layer, 
which  weathers  very  slowly,  and  as  it  rose  it  was  cut  through  only  by 
the  narrow  valleys  of  the  larger  streams ;  so  that  this  region  now  remains 
as  the  rough  upland  called  the  Alleghany  plateaus. 

Find  where  the  glacial  moraine  crosses  the  mountains. 
North  of  this  the  Appalachian  region  was  once  so  deeply 
covered  by  the  Laurentian  glacier  that  only  the  highest 
mountain  peaks  projected  above  the  ice.  The  glacier 
widened  many  of  the  valleys,  rounded  and  softened  the 
mountain  outlines,  and  left  the  region  covered  with  drift. 


TOPICS  ON   THE   APPALACHIAN   MOUNTAINS. 

I.  Northern  Part.    Valleys :  formation ;  drainage  —  lakes,  rivers, 
falls.     Mountains :  shape ;  position. 

II.  Southern  Part.  Western  region :  slope ;  surface.  Eastern 
region:  ridges  —  formation,  height,  shape,  direction,  chief  peak;  val- 
leys —  shape,  formation,  chief  one.  Drainage :  northern ;  southern ; 
uses  of  river  valleys. 


THE  CENTRAL  LOWLAND. 

What  three  slopes  of  the  United  States  lie  mostly  or  entirely  in  the 
Central  Lowland  ?  (map,  p.  48.)  What  river  system  drains  most  of  the 
.Central  Lowland  in  the  United  States?    What  is  the  largest  eastern 


tributary  of  the  Mississippi  ?  Name  the  three  largest  western  tributaries. 
What  is  the  largest  system  of  the  Gulf  slope,  after  the  Mississippi? 
Name  several  other  streams  of  the  Gulf  slope  west  of  the  Mississippi 
system ;  several  east  of  that  system. 

The  Central  Lowland  slopes  from  the  Alleghany  pla- 
teaus imperceptibly  southwestward  to  the  Mississippi 
River,  where  a  more  rapid  but  still  imperceptible  as- 
cending slope  begins  and  continues  to  the  very  foot  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  over  a  mile. 

The  surface  of  this  vast  region  is  remarkable  for  its 
smoothness.  In  the  main  it  is  broken  only  by  the 
"  bluffs,"  or  hillsides  which  border  the  broad  flood  plains. 

Trace  the  terminal  moraine  through  this  region.  North 
of  its  low,  gravelly  "  kettle  hills,"  the  country  is  thickly 
covered  with  glacial  drift  and  contains  thousands  of 
lakes ;  so  that  this  region  may  be  called  the  Lake  plains. 
Find  it  on  the  map. 

In  the  drift-covered  region  south  of  the  moraine  most 
of  the  glacial  lakes  have  been  drained  or  filled  with  sedi- 
ment. The  uplands  of  this  region,  and  of  the  country 
to  the  south  and  west,  were  grassy  prairies  when  first 
visited  by  white  men.  The  region  may  therefore  be 
called  the  Prairie  plains.    Find  it  on  the  map. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  trace  lines  to  the  southeast 
and  to  the  southwest.  Into  what  do  nearly  all  the  streams 
south  of  these  fines  empty?  This  region  is  called  the 
Gulf  plain.  Toward  the  coast  it  is  much  like  the  Tide- 
water region. 

Through  the  center  of  the  Gulf  plain  the  mighty  Mississippi  meanders 
in  a  great  flood  plain  seventy  miles  wide.  This  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 
regions  in  the  world,  and  contains  many  farms  or  plantations.  Levees, 
or  embankments,  have  been  built  along  the  river  to  prevent  overflows. 
During  high  water  a  break,  or  crevasse,  sometimes  occurs,  and  then  the 
country  far  and  wide  is  covered  with  water.  The  mouth  of  the  river  pro- 
jects far  into  the  Gulf  beyond  the  even  curve  of  its  shore  line.     Why  f 

Where  are  the  Ozark  Mountains  ?  They  are  the  most 
rugged  part  of  the  Central  Lowland.  What  river  divides 
this  region  into  two  parts  ?  North  of  this  river  the  land 
consists  of  rugged  plateaus.  South  of  it,  however,  the 
rocks  have  been  folded  and  eroded  into  ranges  of  hills 
and  low  mountains. 


A  levee  on  the  lower  Mississippi  River. 


52 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


TOPICS   ON  THE   CENTRAL  LOWLAND. 

I.  Slopes.    Eastern.    Western.    Northern.    Southern. 
II.  Rivers.    Chief:    basin;    divides;    branches;    banks;    mouth. 
Other   rivers. 

III.  Regions.  Northern :  edge ;  surface ;  covering.  Central :  limits ; 
covering.  Southern :  drainage ;  covering ;  coast.  Mountains :  position ; 
northern  part ;  southern  part. 

THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  HIGHLAND. 

About  how  much  of  the  United  States  is  embraced  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  highland  ?  (map,  p.  48.)  About  how  much  of  the  width  of 
the  highland  lies  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain  ?  Trace  through  the 
highland  region  the  divides  of  the  two  great  river  basins  west  of  the 
continental  divide.  What  is  peculiar  about  the  drainage  between  these 
basins  1    What  does  this  peculiarity  indicate  about  the  climate  ? 

Most  of  this  region  is  quite  dry.  Only  its  higher  parts 
receive  enough  rainfall  to  support  forest  growth;  the 
general  surface  of  the  plateaus  in  some  places  is  a  true 
desert.  East  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  the  highland  de- 
scends imperceptibly  into  the  lowland  plains,  and,  as  it 
has  the  same  general  smoothness  of  surface,  it  is  called 
the  Great  Plains. 

The  larger  streams  flowing  across  the  Great  Plains  are  kept  so 
choked  with  the  sand  brought  in  by  their  tributaries,  that  the  valleys 
are  widened  faster  than  they  are  deepened,  and  are  therefore  generally 
broad  and  shallow.  In  some  places  toward  the  north,  however,  the  soft 
rock  has  been  eroded  into  a  maze  of  deep  gullies.  As  it  is  therefore 
difficult  to  travel  across  these  places,  they  are  known  as  Bad  Lands. 


The  Rocky  Mountains  occupy  the  highest  extensive  part 
of  the  highland.  The  base  of  these  mountains  is  nearly 
li  miles  high,  while  the  ranges  themselves  rise  between 
one  and  two  miles  higher.  The  lower  slopes  are  forest- 
clad;  the  jagged  crests  are  bare  rocks  except  when  cov- 
ered with  snow. 

Find  the  break  in  the  chain  known  as  South  Pass.  North  of  this  the 
ranges  are  quite  irregular  in  direction.  Some  of  them  are  the  remnants 
of  rock  folds,  some  are  upheaved  and  tilted  blocks  of  rock,  and  others 
are  formed  of  volcanic  outflows,  though  the  only  indication  of  present 
volcanic  activity  is  a  wonderful  geyser  region  near  the  source  of  the 
Yellowstone.  South  of  the  pass  the  ranges  are  more  nearly  parallel. 
As  a  rule,  each  range  is  a  single  broad  rock  fold,  from  which  the  top 
layers  have  been  eroded  away,  thus  exposing  the  hard  granite  rock 
which  now  forms  the  higher,  central  part  of  the  range.  Between  the 
ranges  are  wide,  grass-carpeted  valleys,  or  "  parks." 


Crater  of  Castle  Geyser,  Wyoming. 

When  the  great  plateau  region  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  upheaved,  the  rocks  were  broken  into 
great  blocks,  many  miles  in  length.  Some  of  them  were 
lifted  higher  than  others,  forming  plateaus  at  different 
levels,  separated  by  lines  of  cliffs.  Other  blocks  were 
greatly  tilted  in  rising,  the  upturned  edge  forming  a 
range  of  mountains,  and  thus  the  surface  of  the  plateau 
region  was  rendered  very  uneven. 


Illustrating  the  tilted  block  structure  of  the  Plateau  region. 

Where  are  the  Columbia  plateaus  f  After  the  upheaval  in  that  region, 
lava  forced  its  way  up  through  the  fissures,  and  spread  over  the  surface. 
Repeated  outflows,  meeting  and  overlapping,  covered  nearly  the  whole 
region  with  lava  to  a  great  depth,  completely  burying  many  of  the  up- 
heaved and  tilted  rocks. 

Into  this  vast  lava  plateau  Snake  River  has  cut  a  narrow  canyon 
which  is  in  some  places  three  fourths  of  a  mile  deep. 

Where  are  the  Colorado  plateaus  f  Here  there  were  only  slight  out- 
flows of  lava,  and  the  region  is  divided  into  many  plateaus,  some  high, 
some  low,  separated  by  long  lines  of  cliffs  along  the  sides  of  the  up- 
heaved blocks.  The  region  is  remarkable  for  the  deep,  narrow  canyons 
in  which  nearly  all  the  streams  flow. 

These  streams  have  been  flowing  in  their  present  channels  through- 
out much  of  the  period  of  upheaval,  and  have  deepened  their  channels 
about  as  fast  as  the  surrounding  country  rose,  and  much  faster  than 
weathering  could  widen  the  channels  in  that  dry  region.  Hence  the 
channels  have  become  narrow  and  impassable  gorges  or  canyons,  in 
some  places  over  a  mile  deep. 

What  mountain  range  borders  the  upper  Colorado  basin  on  the  west  1 
The  region  between  this  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  extending  south 
to  the  Gulf  of  California,  is  the  driest  part  of  the  United  States.  There 
are  few  permanent  streams.  What  becomes  of  their  water?  Why  is 
the  region  called  the  Great  Basin  f 

The  uptilted  edges  of  the  blocks  into  which  this  region  was  broken  as 
it  rose  have  been  eroded  into  numerous  low,  north  and  south  mountain 
ranges.  Between  these  are  broad,  level  plains  formed  from  the  detritus 
washed  down  from  the  mountains.  During  the  season  when  some  rain 
falls,  shallow  lakes  form  in  many  of  these  valleys ;  but  during  the  dry 
season  they  evaporate,  leaving  their  beds  incrusted  with  salt. 

About  the  time  that  the  Laurentian  glacier  covered  the  eastern  part 
of  North  America,  extensive  lakes  covered  much  of  the  Great  Basin. 
Gradually  the  climate  became  drier,  and  the  lakes  became  smaller  as 


UNITED  STATES. 


53 


Old  lake  terraces,  Utah. 

they  evaporated.  Great  Salt  Lake  and  a  few  smaller  lakes  are  rem- 
nants of  these  old  inland  seas.  Around  the  edges  of  the  basin  are  now 
found  several  nearly  level  terraces  which  mark  different  heights  of  these 
old  great  lakes  as  their  surface  gradually  receded. 

Along  the  west  side  of  the  plateau  region  the  upheaval 
has  resulted  in  two  prominent  mountain  ranges  whose 
tops,  like  those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  rise  from  one  to 
two  miles  higher  than  the  general  surface  of  the  plateau. 
What  are  the  names  of  these  ranges  ? 

The  Sierra  Nevada  is  an  enormous  block  of  rock  uptilted  along  its 
eastern  edge,  so  that  its  surface  slopes  to  the  west.  The  dry  eastern 
side  is  short  and  steep.  The  long  western  slope,  however,  is  well 
watered.  "Why  1  The  streams  running  down  this  long  slope  have  cut 
deep  canyons,  leaving  a  succession  of  long  mountain  spurs  between. 

There  were  outflows  of  lava  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  but  north  of  Lassens 
Peak  the  outflows  were  so  great  that  the  tilted  blocks  are  generally 
buried,  and  the  impression  is  given  that  the  Cascade  Mountains  are  entirely 
composed  of  outflows  of  lava.  The  outflows  here  built  up  huge  volcanic 
cones  which  now  form  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  Find 
ten  peaks  north  of  Lassens  Peak.  These  are  all  old  volcanoes,  some  of 
which  are  probably  not  yet  extinct.  Mt.  Rainier,  the  highest,  is  nearly 
three  miles  high,  and  several  of  the  others  are  high  enough  to  be  always 
capped  with  snow. 

TOPICS  ON  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  HIGHLAND. 

I.  Plains  akd  Plateaus.  Eastern:  surface;  river  valleys — south, 
north.  Western:  general  appearance ;  formation;  northern  part — for- 
mation, valley ;  central  part  —  limits,  surface,  drainage  ;  southern  part 
—  surface,  valleys,  formation. 

II.  Mountains.  Eastern:  northern  part  —  appearance,  formation; 
southern  part  —  ranges,  valleys.  Western :  southern  range  —  formation, 
slopes,  streams ;  northern  range  —  formation,  peaks. 

III.  Climate.  Regions :  western ;  eastern ;  mountain  tops ;  Great 
Basin ;  lakes.     Effect :  on  surface  ;  on  vegetation. 


THE  PACIFIC  COAST  REGION. 

What  mountains  closely  border  the  Pacific  coast1!  What  mountain- 
ous island  lies  at  the  northern  end  of  these  ranges  ?  By  what  strait  is  it 
separated  from  them  ? 

The  Coast  Ranges  are  much  lower  than  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  the  Cascade  Mountains.  They  are  the  remains  of  wide 
rock  folds.  While  they  were  being  elevated  they  were  a 
chain  of  mountainous  islands,  like  Vancouver  Island,  or 
high  peninsulas,  like  Lower  California,  and  like  them  were 
bordered  on  the  east  by  long,  narrow  sounds  or  gulfs. 


Rainier,  Washington. 


Continued  elevation  has  brought  the  bottoms  of  these 
gulfs  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  sea  to  form  the  great 
lowland  valleys  of  the  region.    What  are  their  names  ? 

The  bottoms  of  these  valleys  have  been  rendered  very  fertile  by  the 
fine  detritus  washed  into  them  from  the  bordering  mountains,  so  that 
now  they  are  among  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  country.  Through 
what  bay  does  the  drainage  of  the  California  valley  now  reach  the  ocean  f 
It  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  strait  somewhat  like  the  present  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca.  What  great  river  flows  across  the  Northwestern  valleys  ? 
The  deeper  northern  valley  is  still  occupied  by  a  small  island-studded 
arm  of  the  sea.    What  is  its  name  1 

The  upheaval  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland  and  of  the  Pacific 
coast  region  has  occupied  thousands  of  years,  but  this  period  is  really 
very  short  in  comparison  with  the  great  age  of  the  earth,  and  it  has  been 
the  latest  period  in  the  earth's  long  history.  The  Appalachian  Mountains 
were  already  old  and  had  been  worn  down  by  ages  of  erosion  long  be- 
fore the  region  of  the  western  highlands  had  appeared  above  the  sea. 
Thus,  in  comparison  with  the  Appalachians,  the  western  mountains 
are  very  young ;  they  are  among  the  youngest  mountains  in  the  world. 
But  it  is  thought  that  the  upheaval  of  the  western  highland  is  not 
yet  completed.  The  region  is  still  subject  to  earthquakes,  caused  by 
slight  movements  of  the  great  blocks  into  which  the  region  is  broken, 
and  some  of  its  volcanoes,  though  they  appear  to  be  nearly  extinct, 
still  show  occasional  signs  of  activity. 


TOPICS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  REGION. 

I.  Ranges.     Position.    Extent.    Height.    Formation. 
II.  Valleys.    Formation.    Divisions.    Drainage.    Soil. 
III.  Comparative  Age.    Evidences  of. 


California  valley  and  Sierra  Nevada,  California. 


54 


parts  of  the  earth. 


HEAT  BKLTS 


CLIMATE. 

In  what  zone  is  the  main  part  of  the  United  States?  The  north 
temperate  heat  belt  travels  northward  in  summer  and  southward  in 
winter.  Why  ?  In  summer  it  is  so  far  north  that  its  southern  edge  oc- 
cupies the  position  represented  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  left-hand  chart 
above.  All  the  country  south  of  this  line  is  in  the  hot  belt  at  that  season. 
In  winter,  however,  the  edge  of  the  hot  belt  is  in  Mexico,  and  the  tem- 
perate belt  covers  only  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  while  all 
the  country  north  of  the  heavy  line  in  the  chart  is  in  the  cold  belt. 

It  thus  follows  that,  as  regards  summer  and  winter 
temperature,  there  are  four  climatic  belts  or  regions  in  the 
United  States.  Name  and  locate  them  from  the  chart. 
Why  is  the  Pacific  coast  always  temperate,  but  not  the 
Atlantic  coast  ?  (pp.  26,  46.)  Explain  why  the  temperate 
belt  in  summer  and  the  cold  belt  in  winter  extend  farther 
south  in  the  Eocky  Mountain 
region  than  elsewhere  (p.  24). 

While  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States  is  generally  cooler 
than  the  southern  part,  the  difference 
is  but  slight  during  the  summer  days, 
which  are  almost  equally  warm  in 
all  parts  of  the  country  east  of  the 
Pacific  coast  region.  The  great  dif- 
ference is  in  the  winters,  which  are 
much  longer  and  colder  in  the  north 
than  in  the  south. 

In  the  region  shown  by  the  dots 
in  the  middle  chart  at  the  top  of  the 
page,  there  is  no  day  in  the  year 
whose  average  temperature  is  below 
freezing.  The  number  of  freezing 
days  in  a  year  increases  north- 
wardly over  the  shaded  portion  of  the  chart,  the  first  line  showing 
where  there  are  thirty  days  of  freezing  weather,  the  second  line 
sixty  days,  and  so  on.  In  the  central  portion  of  the  northern  boundary, 
how  many  months  are  there  whose  average  temperature  is  below  freez- 
ing T    How  many  days  is  that  ? 

Throughout  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Pacific  coast 
region,  but  especially  in  the  northern  or  northeastern  half, 
the  weather  is  subject  to  great  and  rapid  changes  at  all 
seasons.  These  are  caused  by  the  cyclones  or  cyclonic 
storms  which  are  almost  always  drifting  eastward  over 
the  country.    What  is  a  cyclone  ?  (p.  26.) 

The  effect  of  a  cyclonic  storm  upon  the  weather  is  illustrated  by  the 
chart  in  the  center  of  the  page.  The  point  of  the  heavy  arrow  lies  in  a 
storm  center,  around  and  into  which  the  winds  are  whirling,  as  shown 
by  the  light  arrows. 

To  the  east  of  the  center  the  winds  come  from  the  south  and  south- 
east and  make  the  weather  warm.    What  is  the  direction  of  the  winds 


to  the  west  of  the  storm  center?    These  winds  bring  cool  or  cold 
weather  to  that  region.    Why  ? 

But  the  storm  center  is  moving  all  the  time.  Twenty-four  hours 
before  it  reached  the  position  C  it  was  at  B ;  and  a  day  before  that  at 
A ;  while  observations  on  many  cyclones  indicate  that  a  day's  drifting 
from  C  will  probably  carry  it  to  the  neighborhood  of  D.  Thus,  as  the 
storm  drifts  rapidly  eastward  over  the  country,  it  pushes  warmer  weather 
along  in  front  of  it,  and  drags  colder  weather  along  in  its  rear. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  country  the  southerly  winds  in  front  of  the 
cyclone  are  vapor-laden  when  they  leave  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  are 
somewhat  chilled  as  they  advance  northward ;  hence  cloudy,  rainy,  or 
snowy  weather  sweeps  over  that  part  of  the  country  in  front  of  the 
drifting  cyclone.  When  the  storm  center  is  far  west  of  the  Gulf,  how- 
ever, the  southerly  winds  in  front  of  it  come  from  the  dry  highlands 
instead  of  from  the  Gulf,  and  hence  give  little  rain  to  the  western  half 
of  the  United  States.  The  northerly  winds  on  the  western  side  of  the 
storm  center  grow  warmer  as  they  advance  southward,  and  hence  are 
accompanied  by  clear,  dry  weather.    Why  ? 

Cyclones  follow  one  another  so 
rapidly  that  there  are  almost  always  , 
one  or  more  storm  centers  in  the 
United  States.  The  observers  of 
the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
take  daily  observations  of  the 
weather  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  by  which  they  are  able  to 
locate  the  existing  storm  centers, 
and  by  judging  in  what  direction 
and  how  far  the  cyclone,  with  its 
warm  wave,  cold  wave,  and  rain  and 
cloud  regions,  will  advance  during 
the  next  twenty-four  hours,  they  are 
able  to  determine  the  "  weather 
probabilities  "  for  the  following  day. 
In  the  rainfall  chart  above,  the 
regions  shaded  by  lines  would  each 
year  be  covered  more  than  twenty 
inches  deep  by  the  rainfall,  if  the  water  remained  where  it  fell.  This 
amount  is  ample  for  almost  all  kinds  of  farming.  In  the  parts  of  the 
United  States  shown  by  dots,  or  left  unshaded,  the  rainfall  is  less  than 
twenty  inches  and  is  too  little  for  successful  farming,  except  in  some 
parts  of  the  north  where  the  rains  occur  during  the  few  weeks  when  the 
growing  crops  most  need  moisture.  As  a  rule,  however,  irrigation  is 
necessary  for  farming  in  these  regions  of  light  rainfall. 

Explain  why  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  has  a  heavier  rain- 
fall than  the  highland  region  of  the  west.  Explain  why  the  Pacific 
coast  region  has  a  heavier  rainfall. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  chapter  11,  on  Weather  and  Weather 
Predictions,  in  Waldo's  "  Elementary  Meteorology."  _^^ 


GOVERNMENT. 

Name  several  forms  of  government  (p.  36).    What  is  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  United  States  ?    Who  has  the  power  under  this  form  t 


UNITED  STATES.. 


55 


When  the  English  colonies  became  independent  states, 
each  formed  a  state  government,  which  deals  with  local 
matters  only.  But  all  the  states  united  to  form  a  single 
nation  under  a  Federal  government,  which  deals  only  with 
matters  of  interest  to  more  than  one  state. 

When  the  Union  was  formed  there  were  but  thirteen  states.  How 
many  stripes  are  there  in  our  flag  1  What  do  they  represent  ?  Nearly 
all  the  settled  part  of  the  thirteen  states  was  east  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  The  land  between  the  mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River 
was  unsettled.  It  was  given  up  to  the  Federal  government,  and,  with 
most  of  the  territory  afterward  acquired  by  the  United  States,  was 
known  as  public  land.  The  Federal  government  had  this  public 
land  divided  into  great  tracts  called  territories,  and  surveyed. 
When  enough  people  had  settled  in  a  territory  it  was  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  a  state.  From  the  list  on  p.  157,  find  how  many 
states  there  are  now ;  how  many  territories.  How  many  stars  are 
there  in  our  flag  ?    For  what  do  they  stand  f 

The  Federal  Government  consists  of  three  great 
branches.  These  are  (1)  a  law-making,  or  legisla- 
tive, branch,  called  Congress,  to  which  each  state 
sends  a  number  of  representatives  and  two  senators, 
chosen  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  people  of  the 
state;  (2)  a  law-enforcing,  or  executive,  branch,  at 
the  head  of  which  is  the  President,  who  is  elected 
every  four  years;  (3)  a  law-explaining,  or  judicial, 
branch,  consisting  of  Federal  courts  presided  over 
by  judges  who  are  appointed  for  life. 


White  House,  Washington  city.  ■ 

Congress  meets,  the  Supreme  Court  has  its  sessions,  and 
the  President  lives  in  Washington  city,  which  is  therefore 
the  capital  of  the  United  States.  Congress  and  the 
Supreme  Court  meet  in  the  great  Capitol.  The  residence 
of  the  President  is  called  the  White  House. 

The  President  is  assisted  by  the  heads  of  the  nine  great  departments 
into  which  the  executive  branch  of  the  government  is  divided.  These 
are  the  President's  chief  advisers,  and  they  are  said  to  form  his  Cabinet. 
The  Secretary  of  State  has  charge  of  our  foreign  ministers  and  consuls 
and  all  the  government's  business  with  foreign  countries.  The  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  controls  the  collection,  payment,  and  coinage  of 
money  for  the  government.  The  Secretaries  of  War  and  the  Navy  con- 
trol the  army  and  the  navy.     The  Attorney  General  is  the  government's 


chief  lawyer.  The  Postmaster  General  controls  the  post  offices  of  the 
country,  the  carrying  of  the  mails,  and  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  pos- 
tage stamps.  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  has  charge  of  the  surveying 
and  sale  of  the  public  lands,  of  pensions,  of  patents,  and  of  Indian 
affairs.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  collects  and  publishes  information 
about  the  crops  and  the  conditions  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  them ; 
he  also  has  charge  of  the  Weather  Bureau.  The  Secretary  of  Commerce 
and  Labor  collects  and  publishes  information  about  these  subjects ;  he 
also  has  charge  of  the  lighthouses. 

The  State  Governments  are  similar  to  the  Federal 
government.      Each  has  a  law-making  branch,  usually 


The  Capitol,  Washington  city. 


called  a  legislature,  composed  of  senators  and  representa- 
tives; a  law-enforcing  branch,  ccfmposed  of  a  governor 
and  his  assistants ;  and  a  law-explaining  branch,  consisting 
of  the  state  courts,  presided  over  by  judges.  These  officers 
are  generally  elected  by  the  people  of  the  state,  though  in 
some  states  the  judges  are  appointed. 

Almost  all  of  the  laws  which  regulate  the  affairs  of  our  daily  lives, 
such  as  marriage  and  the  family  relations,  public  education,  and  the 
manner  of  conducting  business,  are  made  by  the  state  government.  In 
order  that  the  money  issued  shall  be  equally  good  in  every  state,  and 
that  letters  shall  be  carried  without  delay  from  one  state  to  another, 
these  matters  are  controlled  by  the  Federal  government,  and  they  are 
about  the  only  matters  which  usually  bring  that  government  into  direct 
contact  with  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

The  Territories,  or  divisions  of  the  public  land  which 
have  not  yet  been  admitted  as  states,  are  controlled  by 
the  Federal  government.  The  people  of  a  territory  are 
allowed  to  elect  their  own  legislature,  but  the  governor 
and  judges  and  other  officers  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, and  Congress  may  set  aside  laws  made  by  the  ter- 
ritorial legislature.  Each  territory  sends  to  Congress  a 
representative  who  may  speak  but  has  no  vote. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  when  and  by  whom  the  first  United 
States  flag  was  made.  Sing  or  recite  "  The  Star-spangled  Banner."  Find 
the  names  of  the  present  President  and  his  Cabinet.  Read  or  recite 
some  suitable  selection  from  Morgan's  "  Patriotic  Citizenship" —  such  as 
"  The  Poor  Voter  on  Election  Day,"  by  Whittier  (p.  285),  or  the  poem  by 
Bryant  on  pp.  130,  131.  Read  chapter  33  from  Eggleston's  "  History  of 
the  United  States." 


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UNITED  STATES. 


57 


Before  taking  the  following  lessons  devote  several  days  to  the  study  of  the 
map  on  the  opposite  page,  until  you  can  name  or  locate  without  hesitation  any 
state  or  territory  on  the  little  population  map  below. 


POPULATION  AND  PROGRESS. 

Imagine  a  north  and  south  line  and  two  east  and  west  lines  to  be 
drawn  across  the  United  States,  dividing  it  roughly  into  quarters  as  in 
the  map  below.  Which  quarter  has  the  densest  population?  Which 
quarter  ranks  next  in  density  of  population  ?  What  part  is  very  thinly 
peopled?  With  what  climatic  region  does  the  thinly  settled  region 
nearly  correspond  ?  (p.  54.)     With  what  great  physical  region  ? 


trmjSparsc 


DENSITY 
OF  POPULATION    \/~  x 


Moderately  dense 


|Pery  dense  V' 


Population.  The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  con- 
tains nearly  nine  tenths  of  the  people  in  the  country.  At 
the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  "War  there  were  about  four 
million  people  in  the  United  States.  In  what  part  of  the 
country  did  most  of  them  live  ?  What  is  the  population 
now?  (p.  157.)  Over  what  part  of  the  country  has  it 
spread  ?  Such  a  rapid  increase  and  spread  of  population 
has  never  before  been  known  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
It  has  been  caused  by  the  millions  of  people,  who,  at- 
tracted by  our  cheap  and  fertile  lands  and  the  great  op- 
portunities for  success  in  life  under  our  free  government, 
have  left  their  homes  in  Europe  and  come  to  settle 
in  the  United  States,  as  thousands  still  do  every 
year. 

People  have  come  from  all  countries,  but  mostly 
from  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Germany,  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  Whatever  their  nationality, 
however,  they  soon  adopt  our  language,  manners, 
and  customs,  and  become  thorough  Americans. 

Most  of  the  European  immigrants  have  landed  on  our  northeast 
coast,  and  have  moved  inland  to  seek  new  homes.  Hence  the 
northeastern  quarter  of  the  country  is  not  only  most  densely  settled, 
but  has  the  largest  foreign  population. 

Few  immigrants  land  in  the  southeastern  quarter,  and  most  of 
the  people  in  that  region  were  born  in  this  country.  Hence  there 
are  few  foreigners  in  that  quarter ;  but  there  are  about  as  many 
negroes  there  as  foreigners  further  north. 

What  races  inhabit  the  thinly  settled  region?  (p.  49.)  There 
are  many  more  whites  than  Indians,  and  most  of  them  were  born 
in  the  United  States. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  a  large  foreign  population.  They 
are  mainly  Europeans  who  have  crossed  the  country  from  the  east 
coast;  but  about  one  fourth  of  the  foreigners  are  Chinese.  To 
what  race  do  they  belong  ? 


Progress.  No  other  highly  civilized  nation  occupies  so 
large  a  continuous  territory  as  the  United  States,  or  is  so 
well  fitted  for  the  successful  pursuit  of  so  many  branches 
of  human  industry.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  there  so 
vast  a  number  of  highly  civilized  and  energetic  people 
living  under  a  single  government,  speaking  the  same  lan- 
guage, and  having  the  same  general  customs  and  standards 
of  life. 

Because  of  these  advantages,  industries  of  all  kinds  have 
increased  in  this  country  even  more  rapidly  than  the  pop- 
ulation, so  that  to-day  the  United  States,  though  one  of 
the  youngest,  is  one  of  the  greatest  nations  in  the  world. 
Not  only  is  the  total  product  of  all  the  seven  chief  indus- 
tries pursued  by  man  greater  in  this  country  than  in  any 
other,  but  the  product  of  each  of  these  industries  is 
greater  than  in  any  other  nation.  Make  a  list  of  the 
seven  great  industries  of  man. 

By  most  of  these  industries  the  people  in  the  United 
States  produce  some  articles  in  such  large  quantities  that 
there  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  our  own  great 
population  and  to  leave  a  surplus  for  export  to  other 
countries  where  the  article  is  needed.  Thus  the  people  of 
nearly  every  country  in  the  world  have  come  to  rely  upon 
the  workmen  of  the  United  States  for  some  of  the  neces- 
saries of  life. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  enlarged  copies  of  the  maps  opposite 
p.  64  and  the  diagram  opposite  p.  124  in  Gannett's  "Building  of  a 
Nation,"  for  your  schoolroom  wall.  Read  or  recite  "  The  Axe  of  the 
Settler,"  by  Mary  E.  Hewitt,  or  "The  Pioneer,"  by  Lowell.  Read 
chapters  1,  4,  and  15  in  "  Children's  Stories  of  American  Progress,"  by 
Henrietta  Christian  Wright. 


PRODUCTION. 

Agriculture.  More  of  our  people  are  engaged  in  farm- 
ing than  in  any  other  occupation.  What  parts  of  the 
country  are  best  adapted  for  farming  ?  (p.  54.)     Why  ? 


Immigrants  landing  at  New  York  city. 


58 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


COTTON  REGION 


One  of  our  most  important  crops  is  cotton. 
For  what  is  cotton  used?  Cotton  is  our 
chief  export.  What  part  of  the  world's 
crop  is  grown  in  this  country  ?  Cotton  re- 
quires a  warm,  moist  climate.  In  what  part 
of  the  United  States  is  there  such  a  climate  ? 
The  shaded  portion  of  the  above  map 
shows  where  cotton  is  grown.  Which  quar- 
ter of  the  country  embraces  most  of  the 
cotton-growing  region?  There  are  other  important  crops  and  other 
industries  in  this  region,  but  the  cotton  crop  is  the  most  valuable  product. 


UNITED  STATES  -  REST  OF  WORLD 

The  world's  cotton  crop. 


REST   OF  WORLD 

The  world's  wheat  crop. 


Wheat  and  corn  are  our  most  valuable  food 
crops.  For  what  is  wheat  used  ?  What  part 
of  the  world's  wheat  crop  do  we  produce? 
We  export  great  quantities  of  this  grain 
every  year.  Wheat  and  corn  require  less 
heat  and  moisture  than  cotton.  The  shaded 
portions  of  the  above  map  show  the  great 

wheat-growing  regions  of  the  United  States.    In  which  quarter  of  the 

country  is  most  of  the  wheat  grown  ?  Al- 
though the  greater  part  of  the  wheat  is 

grown  in  the  northeastern  quarter,  much  is 

also  raised  in  the  fertile  valleys  near  the 

Pacific  coast.      Corn  is  our  largest  crop. 

What  part  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  world  do 

we  raise  ?    Corn  grows  in  nearly  all  parts  of 

the  eastern  United   States,  but  most  of  it 

in  the  southern  half  of  the  wheat  region. 

Much  corn  is  used  by  people  in  this  country  for  food,"  and  much  is  exported 

for  that  purpose,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  is  used  here  to  fatten  hogs. 
Many  other  food  crops  are  raised  in  the  United  States,  but  chiefly  in 

the  northeastern  quarter,  which  is  thus,  except  in  the  extreme  northeast, 

the  great  food-producing  section  of  the  country. 


UNITED 


„.,.,-<-      REST 
STATES-WO°RLD 

The  world's  corn  crop. 


TOBACCO  REGIONS  \ 


UNITED  STATES  -  REST  OF  WORLD 

The  world's  tobacco  crop. 


As  much  tobacco  is  raised  in  the  United 
States  as  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  to- 
gether, and  of  this  crop  there  is  a  large 
surplus  for  export.  The  chief  tobacco- 
growing  regions  are  shaded  on  the  above 
map,  three  quarters  of  the  crop  being 
raised  in  the  regions  of  darker  shading. 


Herding.    About  half  of  the  hogs  and  one  fourth  of  the 
cattle  in  the  world  are  raised  in  the  United  States,  and 


UNITED  STATES    -REST  OT  WORLD 

The  world's  product  of  cattle  and  hogs. 

from  them  is  obtained  so  large  a  surplus  of  pork  and 
beef  that,  after  cotton,  meat  is  our  greatest  export. 
Horses  and  sheep  are  raised  in  greater  numbers  than  in 
most  countries,  but  scarcely  in  excess  of  our  own  wants.    « 

Where  is  the  great  corn-growing  belt  ?  The  greatest  number  of  hogs 
are  raised  in  that  belt.  Why?  Cattle  are  raised  chiefly  in  the  same 
region  and  westward  over  the  Great  Plains,  where  there  is  sufficient 
moisture  for  coarse  pasturage.  Most  of  the  horses  are  reared  on  the 
richer  pastures  of  the  Prairie  plains.  Where  are  they  ?  What  fiber  is 
obtained  from  sheep  ?  Fleeces  grow  thickest  and  best  in  a  rather  cool 
climate,  hence  the  great  sheep  ranges  are  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Appalachian  region,  on  the  uplands  of  the  Lake  plains,  in  the  western 
highlands,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Fishing.  The  product  of  the  fisheries  of  the  world  is 
of  less  value  than  that  of  the  other  great  industries,  but 
more  fish  are  caught  by  people  from  the  United  States 
than  by  any  other  people.  What 
part  of  the  catch  of  the  world  is 
obtained  by  our  fishermen  ? 

Oysters  and  codfish  from  the  northeast 
coast  and  salmon  from  the  northwest  coast 

—  .  .  .      are  the  most  important  products.     These 

_—    m  =-i*W  /  =»&sJ  I      are  exported  in  considerable  quantities,  but 

■  / 1"  /  F     ^e  ^otal  amount  is  not  large  in  comparison 

^A    ■    >fK  /  /  ^§\  /  /       with  our  great  exports. 

M 


US     -     REST  OF.  WORLD 

Fisheries  of  the  world. 


U.S.-  REST  OF  WORLD. 
Lumbering  of  the  world. 


Lumbering.  Fully  one  third  of 
the  timber  cut  in  the  world  each 
year  comes  from  the  forests  of  the 


UNITED   STATES. 


59 


FOREST  REGIONS 


United  States.  Indeed,  lumbering  is  carried  on  so  exten- 
sively and  recklessly  in  this  country  that  in  a  few  years 
our  best  forests  will  be  destroyed  unless  cutting  is  more 
carefully  regulated.  Lumber,  in  the  shape  of  logs,  beams, 
boards,  and  shingles,  forms  one  of  our  important  exports. 

In  what  two  parts  of  the  country  do  the  largest  forests  occur  ?  Why 
are  forests  found  in  these  regions  rather  than  in  the  others  ?  Where  are 
the  heavily  forested  regions  1  What  kinds  of  valuable  woods  prevail  in 
each  region  1 

Mining.  The  mines  of  the  United  States  are  among  its 
most  valuable  resources,  and  yield  about  one  third  of  the 
mineral  product  of  the  world.  By  far  the  most  valuable 
of  the  mineral  productions  are  coal  and  iron ;  then  follow 
in  value  petroleum,  gold,  copper,  and  silver.  The  yield  of 
each  of  these  is  enormous.  The  petroleum  and  copper 
amount  to  more  than  half  of  the  world's  supply,  and  these 
two  minerals,  together  with  coal,  are  important  articles  of 
export. 

Which  quarter  of  the  country  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  three 
largest  coal  fields  ?    Three  fourths  of  our  coal  is  mined  in  the  large  east- 


COAL  FIELDS 


ern  field  and  in  the  small  detached  fields 
northeast  of  it,  and  most  of  the  remainder 
comes  from  the  large  middle  and  western 

U.S.     -      REST  OF  WORLD  fields. 

The  world's  output  of  coal.  Iron  ore  is  found  m  nearly  every  state> 

but  about  two  thirds  of  our  product  is  mined 
near  the  south  and  west  shores  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  most  of  the  rest  is  found  in  the       U.S. -REST  OF  WORLD 
eroded  rock  folds  of  the  Appalachian  ridges.   The  world's  output  of  iron  ore. 


£SS§) 


7±m 


i^sa 


More  than  nine  tenths  of  the  petroleum  occurs  near  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  great  eastern  coal  field  and  westward  nearly  to  the  great 
middle  coal  field. 

Gold  and  silver  are  mined  chiefly  in  the 
Eocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
while  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  copper 
comes  from  two  small  clusters  of  mines, 
one  near  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior 
and  the  other  near  the  source  of  the  Mis- 
souri River. 


U.S.  -REST  OF  WORLD 

The  world's  output  of 

gold  and  silver. 


U.S.    -  REST  OF  WORLD 

The  world's  manufactures. 


Manufacturing.  Not  only  is  the  United  States  the  great- 
est manufacturing  country,  but  in  the  extent  and  variety 
of  manufactures  it  surpasses  any 
two  other  countries  in  the  world. 
Nearly  every  kind  of  manufactured 
article  wanted  by  civilized  man  is 
made  somewhere  in  our  country, 
and  nearly  always  it  is  made  more 
cheaply  here  than  anywhere  else,  for  in  no  other  country 
is  there  so  much  labor-saving  machinery  used  as  in  the 
United  States. 

The  ten  greatest  manufactures  of  our  country  are : 

1.  Flour  and  corn  meal.  6.  Lumber. 

2.  Cotton  and  woolen  cloth.  7.  Clothing. 

3.  Packed  meats  (beef  and.pork).  8.  Liquors. 

4.  Iron  and  steel  goods.  9.  Shoes  and  leather  goods. 

5.  Machinery.  10.  Books  and  newspapers. 

Nearly  all  of  these,  and  many  other  manufactured 
goods,  are  important  articles  of  export  —  particularly 
meats,  flour,  and  iron  and  steel  goods. 


*m 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

The  sizes  of  the  dots  indicate 
comparative  population 


You  have  learned  that  most  of  the  manufacturing  of  the  world  is  car- 
ried on  in  cities  and  towns.  On  this  map  the  cities  and  towns  of  the 
United  States  are  shown  by  dots,  the  larger  dots  standing  for  the  larger 
manufacturing  centers.  In  which  quarter  of  the  United  States  is  most 
of  the  manufacturing  carried  on  1  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  About  nine 
tenths  of  our  manufacturing  is  done  in  that  quarter  of  the  country. 
Compare  this  map  with  that  of  the  coal  region.  Mention  one  advantage 
which  that  quarter  of  the  country  has  for  manufacturing.  Where  is 
most  of  our  iron  ore  mined  ?  To  smelt  the  iron  from  the  ore,  much  fuel 
is  necessary,  and  as  the  ore  can  be  transported  cheaply  by  water,  the 
regions  where  the  great  coal  fields  approach  the  Great  Lakes  have 
become  the  most  important  centers  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry. 
Why?  The  manufacture  of  flour,  meat,  the  liquors  which  are  made 
from  grain,  and  lumber  is  also  carried  on  chiefly  west  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains.  Why?  What  are  the  other  great  manufactures t 
They  are  made  chiefly  east  of  the  mountains. 


60 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Supplemental  Work.  Read  chapters  3,  4,  and  5  in  Carnegie's  "  Tri- 
umphant Democracy."  Make  an  enlarged  copy  of  the  plates  opposite 
pp.  164  and  170  in  Gannett's  "  Building  of  a  Nation,"  for  the  school- 
room wall. 

COMMERCE  AND  WEALTH. 

Commerce.  The  collection  of  raw  materials  from  the 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  at  the  points  of  manu- 
facture or  export,  the  distribution  of  the  manufactured 
products  to  the  places  where  they  are  to  be  used  or  ex- 
ported, and  the  importation  and  distribution    of  goods 


U.  S+REST     OF      WORLD  + 
The  world's  commerce. 

not  produced  in  the  country,  give  rise  to  a  commerce 
greater  than  that  of  any  two  other  nations  in  the  world. 

Although  our  foreign  commerce  (exports  and  imports) 
is  exceeded  by  that  of  only  one  other  country,  it  forms  but 
one  tenth  of  our  total  commerce.  Make  a  list  of  our  chief 
exports.  The  greatest  of  our  imports  are  sugar,  from  the 
West  Indies,  and  coffee,  from  South  America.  Other 
leading  imports  are : 


1.  Cloth — woolen,  silk,  and  cotton. 

2.  Iron  and  steel  goods. 

3.  Drugs  and  chemicals. 


4.  Raw  fibers — flax,  wool,  and  silk. 

5.  Hides  and  leather. 

6.  Raw  India  rubber. 


i 

Fully  three  fourths  of  the  merchandise  which  enters  into  the  com-  A 
merce  of  this  country  is  transported  by  railroad,  and  but  one  fourth  by  J 


"*  BY  RAILROADS  X  BY  BOATS  > 

Methods  of  commercial  transportation  in  the  United  States. 

boats  on  the  oceans  and  lakes  which  border  the  country,  or  on  the  rivers 
and  canals  which  traverse  it.  In  what  waters  does  most  of  the  trans- 
portation by  boats  take  place  ?    Nearly  half  of  the  world's  length  of 


railroad  is  in  the  United  States.    Which  quarter  of  the  country  is  most 
completely  supplied  with  railroads  ?   Which  quarter  has  the  next  greatest 


supply?  How  does  the  distribution  of  railroads  compare  with  the 
distribution  of  population  ?  (map,  p.  57.)  How  do  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  affect  the  distribution  of  railroads?  How  do  the  Ozark 
Mountains  ?  Do  you  think  that  these  mountains  have  been  hindrances 
to  the  carrying  trade?  In  which  quarter  of  the  United  States  do  you 
think  the  industry  of  commerce  is  greatest  ?    Why  ? 

Wealth.  The  value  of  the  farms,  houses,  railways,  and 
other  improvements  in  the  United  States,  together  with 
the  accumulation  from  all  our  industries,  constitutes  an 
amount  of  wealth  much  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
nation. 

Europe  contains  a  greater  number  of  highly  civilized  people  than  any 
other  grand  division.  How  does  the  population  of  our  country  com- 
pare with  that  of  Europe  ?  (p.  157.)    How  does  the  wealth  of  the  United 


U.  S.     —         ALL  OF  EUROPE 

Comparative  population  of  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

States  compare  with  that  of  the  whole  of  Europe?  (p.  159.)  The 
wealth  of  the  United  States,  if  equally  divided,  would  yield  to  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  country  $1246 ;  while  the  wealth  of  Europe 
would  yield  to  every  person  in  that  grand  division  only  about  $683. 
Hence,  in  proportion  to  its  population,  this  country  is  about  twice  as 
wealthy  as  Europe. 


—         ALL         OF         EUROPE 

Comparative  wealth  of  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

Earnings.  Not  only  the  accumulated  wealth  but  the 
daily  earnings  in  this  country  are  far  greater  than  in  any 
other  nation.  This  is  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  we 
use  labor-saving  machinery  in  all  the  great  industries  to- 
a  greater  extent  than  any  other  people.  Therefore,  one 
man  in  this  country  can  produce  as  many  things  in  a 
given  time  as  several  men  can  produce  in  any  other  coun- 
try. Since  a  man  can  produce  more,  wages  are  higher 
here  than  elsewhere,  and  the  earnings  of  the  people  are 
very  great. 

A  little  less  than  half  (forty-five  per  cent)  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  earn  money.  If  the  total  earnings  in  our  country  were  di- 
vided equally  among  the  money-earners,  each  one  would  receive  $1.50 
for  each  week  day  in  the  year ;  while  an  equal  division  of  the  earn- 
ings of  Europe  would  yield  but  sixty-seven  cents  a  day  to  the  money- 
earners  of  that  grand  division.  It  is  this  great  difference  in  the  earning 
power  of  men  in  the  two  regions  that  has  caused  so  large  and  rapid  an 
emigration  of  people  from  Europe  into  the  United  States. 

Supplemental  Work.  From  the  tables  on  pp.  157, 159,  prove  that 
the  figures  given  for  the  average  wealth  and  earnings  here  and  in 
Europe  are  correct.  If  each  money-earner  in  your  family  received  an 
equal  share  of  the  earnings  of  the  country,  what  would  the  income  of 
the  family  be  ?  Read  chapters  5,  10,  and  12  in  "  Children's  Stories  of 
American  Progress."  Read  "  Travels  in  America  One  Hundred  Years 
Ago,"  by  Thomas  Twining.  Read  sections  280  to  286  and  chapter  22  of 
McMaster's  "  School  History  of  the  United  States." 


UNITED   STATES. 


61 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SUBDIVISIONS. 

Review  the  lesson  on  longitude  (p.  7)  and  study  the  supplemental 
work  following  it.  In  about  what  longitude  is  Philadelphia,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania ?  St.  Louis,  in  Missouri  ?  Denver,  in  Colorado  ?  San  Francisco, 
on  the  Pacific  coast  ?  When  the  rotation  of  the  earth  brings  the  meridian 
of  Philadelphia  exactly  beneath  the  sun,  what  time  is  it  at  Philadelphia  1 
How  long  must  the  earth  then  rotate  before  the  meridian  of  St.  Louis  is 
brought  exactly  beneath  the  sun  ?  How  long  before  the  meridian  of  San 
Francisco  is  brought  to  that  position  ?  When  it  is  noon  at  Philadelphia 
what  time  is  it  at  St.  Louis ;  at  Denver ;  at  San  Francisco  ? 

Standard  Time  Belts.  The  main  body  of  our  coun- 
try is  so  broad  from  east  to  west  that  more  than  three 
hours  are  required  for  rotation  to  carry  it  past  the  sun. 
Hence,  if  we  are  told  that  a  railroad  train  starts  "  at  noon," 
we  cannot  be  sure  of  its  time  of  starting,  because  it  is 
noon  at  different  places  in  our  country  for  more  than  three 
hours  after  that  time  occurs  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

To  avoid  mistakes,  delays,  and  confusion,  the  railroad 
companies  of  the  country  have  adopted  the  times  of  the 
meridians  of  75°,  90°,  105°  and  120°,  as  the  standards  by 
which  to  run  their  trains.  Thus,  on  most  of  our  Atlantic 
coast  the  standard  time  of  all  the  railroads  is  that  of  the 
meridian  of  75°  and  is  called  "  Eastern  time  " ;  throughout 
most  of  the  Mississippi  valley  the  standard  is  that  of  the 
meridian  of  90°,  and  is  called  "  Central  time  " ;  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  the  time  of  the  meridian  of  105°  is  stand- 
ard for  the  railroads  and  is  called  "  Mountain  time  " ;  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast  the  standard  is  the  time  of  the  merid- 
ian of  120°  and  is  called  "  Pacific  time." 


What  is  the  difference  in  time  between  each  two  of  these  "  standard" 
meridians  1  When  it  is  noon  by  standard  time  in  the  Central  time  belt, 
what  time  is  it  in  the  Mountain  belt;  in  the  Eastern  belt;  in  the 
Pacific  belt  ?  Thus,  if  a  traveler's  watch  marks  railroad  time  in  one  part 
of  the  country,  he  can  easily  tell  from  it  the  correct  railroad  time  in  any 
other  part  by  adding  or  subtracting  the  proper  number  of  full  hours. 

Each  railroad  company  suits  its  own  convenience  as  to  the  point  on  its 
fine  where  a  change  of  standard  time  is  made.  It  is  usually  at  some 
station  where  the  locomotives  and  train  men  are  changed ;  and  as  such 
stations  on  different  roads  are  seldom  on  the  same  meridian,  the  edges 
of  the  time  belts  are  irregular.  In  the  extreme  southwest,  Mountain  time  . 
is  not  used,  but  a  change  is  made  from  Central  time  directly  to  Pacific 
time.    What  is  the  amount  of  this  change  t    At  what  city  is  it  made  T 

International  Date  Line.  Suppose  that  two  men,  starting  from  the 
prime  meridian  on  Monday  noon,  travel  the  one  eastward  and  the  other 


westward,  each  traveling  just  as  fast  as  the  earth  rotates.  The  man 
who  goes  west  as  fast  as  the  earth  turns  east  keeps  exactly  beneath 
the  sun  all  the  time,  and  it  seems  to  him  to  be  still  Monday  noon  when 
he  reaches  his  starting  point  again  twenty-four  hours  later.  He  has  lost 
a  day  in  his  reckoning  by  traveling  westward  around  the  earth. 

The  other  man  travels  eastward  over  the  earth  as  fast  as  the  earth 
itself  turns  eastward,  and  therefore  he  moves  away  from  the  sun  twice 
as  fast  as  the  prime  meridian  does.  After  twelve  hours'  travel  he  reaches 
the  meridian  of  180°,  but  twelve  hours'  rotation  has  carried  this  meridian 
beneath  the  sun,  and  so  the  traveler  reaches  it  at  noon.  In  twenty-four 
hours  the  man  reaches  his  starting  point  on  the  prime  meridian,  but 
twenty-four  hours'  rotation  has  brought  this  meridian  beneath  the  sun 
again,  so  the  traveler  reaches  it  on  the  second  noon  after  his  start ;  he 
therefore  supposes  it  to  be  Wednesday  noon,  though  really  it  is  but 
twenty-four  hours  after  Monday  noon.  He  has  gained  a  day  in  his  reck- 
oning by  traveling  eastward  around  the  earth.  To  correct  such  errors 
in  their  dates,  navigators  usually  add  a  day  to  their  reckoning  when  they 
sail  westward  across  the  meridian  of  180°,  and  subtract  a  day  when  they 
cross  it  to  the  eastward,  and  for  this  reason  the  meridian  of  180°  is  some- 
times called  the  International  date  line. 

Industrial  Sections.  We  have  seen  that,  owing  largely 
to  differences  in  surface  structure,  climate,  and  soil,  the 


v\  5-£-d.  o..n  1       )   Vy"i^|, 

INDUSTRIAL        ^^\        f^        ~*^                  \    \ 
SECTIONS                           V  f                                               S.) 

great  productions  of  our  country  are  confined  more  or  less 
definitely  to  different  regions.  Hence  the  United  States 
may  be  naturally  separated  into  (1)  the  Northeastern,  or 
cloth-manufacturing  section;  (2)  the  Northern,  or  food-, 
iron-,  and  coal-producing,  and  manufacturing  section ;  (3) 
the  Southern,  or  cotton-producing  section ;  (4)  the  Plateau, 
or  grazing  and  gold-  and  silver-mining  section ;  and  (5)  the 
Pacific,  or  Western  food-  and  gold-producing  section. 

TOPICS  ON  RESOURCES  AND  PEOPLE. 

I.  People.  Races:  Indians — number, location ;  negroes — origin, 
location,  number ;  native  whites — ancestors,  distribution;  white  immi- 
grants—attraction, origin,  landing  place,  distribution.  Population: 
amount ;  increase ;  distribution.  Government :  origin ;  Federal ;  state ; 
territorial.      Wealth :  amount ;  reasons  for ;  average  earnings. 

II.  Advantages.  Soil:  alluvial;  glacial.  Climate:  heat  regions — 
northern,  central,  southern,  western ;  extremes  of  temperature ;  length 
of  winters ;  rainfall  regions ;  influence  of  storms.  Manufacturing  facul- 
ties :  streams ;  minerals.    Transportation  facilities :  railroads ;  rivers. 

III.  Products.  Food:  vegetable  —  region,  amount,  kinds;  animal 
—  kinds,  regions,  amount ;  manufactures.  Fibers :  vegetable ;  animal ; 
manufactures  from.  Timber :  regions ;  kinds ;  amount ;  danger.  Min- 
erals: regions;  kinds;  amounts. 

IV.  Exports.  Natural  products:  chief;  second;  other.  Manu- 
factured products.        .    .. 


BfUDLtV  L  POATES  ENGH'S  PM 


UNITED   STATES. 


63 


^  THE  NORTHEASTERN  SECTION. 

Which  states  compose  this  section  ?  What  large  river  basin  is  north 
of  the  Northeastern  Section  ?  What  waters  are  south  and  east?  In  what 
latitude  is  the  central  part  of  this  section  ?  How  does  the  distance  of 
the  section  from  the  equator  compare  with  its  distance  from  the  north 
pole  ?  What  highland  region  is  in  these  states  ?  Locate  the  Green  Moun- 
tains ;  the  Berkshire  Hills ;  the  White  Mountains ;  Mount  Katahdin. 
Locate  the  chief  lakes.  How  were  the  lakes  mostly  formed  ?  Name  the 
chief  rivers,  and  locate  their  sources,  courses,  and  mouths.  What  facili- 
ties do  they  afford  for  manufacturing  ?  Name  the  states  of  the  group 
in  the  order  of  their  size. 

The  six  states  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of 
our  country  are '  often  called  New  England.  They  oc- 
cupy a  region  less  suitable  for  agriculture  than  is 
any  other  portion  of  the  eastern  lowlands.  The  larger 
river  valleys  of  the  section  are  fertile,  but  over  most  of 
the  uplands  the  soil  is  thin  and  unproductive,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  glacial  bowlders.  Hay,  apples,  and  potatoes 
are  raised  in  the  valleys,  and  market  gardening  and 
dairying  are  carried  on;  but  not  nearly  enough  food 
is  raised  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  people,  and  the  section 
is  supplied  with  grain  and  meat  from  the  West.  In  the 
northern  part  are  extensive  forests. 

The  chief  occupation  is  manufacturing.  Why  are  wa- 
terfalls specially  numerous  in  this  region  f  (p.  50.)  Since 
in  this  section  the  hard  rocks  of  the  Piedmont  region 
extend  to  the  seacoast,  many  of  the  falls  and  rapids 
afford  water  power  for  manufacturing  near  good  harbors, 
where  raw  materials  may  be  received,  and  the  manufac- 
tured goods  shipped.  The. greater  part  of  the  manufac- 
turing, however,  is  now  done  by  steam  power,  most  of 
the  coal,  for  fuel,  being  brought  by  sea  from  the  ports 
of  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays. 

Because  there  are  few  mines  of  coal  or  iron  in  the  section,  the  articles 
manufactured  are  those  whose  value  depends  upon  the  ingenuity  and 
fine  workmanship  displayed  in  making  them,  rather  than  upon  the 
amount  of  fuel  and  raw  material  used.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  boots  and  shoes,  of  which  this  section  pro- 
duces more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  country.  Other  characteristic  manu- 
factures are  paper,  light  hardware,  fine  machinery,  clothing,  jewelry, 
and  rubber  goods. 

New  England,  especially  the  southern  half,  is  thickly 
covered  with  a  network  of  railways,  which  connects  it 


Bar  Harbor,  Mt.  Desert  Island,  Maine. 


with  the  south  and  west,  and  also  with  the  railway  sys- 
tems of  Canada.  The  glacier-carved  fiords  and  bays  of 
the  New  England  coast  contain  many  fine  harbors,  from 
which  vessels  carry  on  an  active  coast  or  fishing  trade; 
and  Boston  maintains  a  large  foreign  commerce. 

About  half  the  granite  and  marble,  and  much  of  the 
slate,  used  in  the  country  are  quarried  in  New  England. 

New  England  contains  the  most  densely  peopled  part  of 
the  United  States.  How  does  this  section  compare  with 
the  rest  of  the  country  in  the  distribution  of  cities  and 
towns  ?  (p.  59.)    More  than  half  the  people  live  in  cities. 

These  states  have  a  well-educated  and  energetic  popula- 
tion, and  fine  school  systems.  They  contain  several  of 
the  oldest  and  most  noted  colleges  in  the  country. 

The  population  of  the  beautiful  mountain  and  lake  regions  of  this 
section,  as  well  as  that  along  the  seacoast  of  nearly  the  whole  of  New 
England,  is  much  more  than  doubled  during  the  summer  months  by  the 
thousands  of  people  who,  at  that  season,  leave  their  regular  occupations 
in  the  crowded  cities  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Union  for  a  period  of 
rest  and  recreation.  The  care  of  the  "  summer  boarders  "  is  an  important 
occupation  throughout  these  regions. 


jw  The  beach  at  Newport,  H.  I. 

'v 
MAINE.     What  natural  boundaries  has  Maine?     By  what  political 

divisions  is  it  bordered?  How  does  it  compare  with  the  rest  of  New 
England  in  size?  Turn  to  the  map  of  the  United  States  (p.  56)  and 
compare  it  with  New  York  in  size;  with  Texas.  Describe  its  surface;  its 
rivers ;  its  coast.    Name  and  locate  the  capital  and  the  five  chief  cities. 

About  one  half  of  the  surface  of  Maine  is  covered  with 
forests  of  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  and  birch,  which  supply 
lumber  and  material  for  wood  pulp  used  to  make  paper. 
Hay,  oats,  potatoes,  and  apples  are  the  most  important  farm 
products.  Maine  is  one  of  the  foremost  granite-producing 
states,  and  yields  much  slate.  The  fiords  of  the  rocky 
coast  form  good  harbors.  Along  the  shore,  herring,  sar- 
dines (p.  39),  and  cod  are  caught,  and  there  are  many 
sardine-packing  and  herring-smoking  establishments. 

Portland,  the  chief  seaport  and  most  important  city,  is 
the  terminus  of  the  principal  railway  system  of  eastern 
Canada.  It  has  an  important  foreign  commerce  when  the 
St.  Lawrence  is  frozen.  The  harbor  is  among  the  largest 
and  finest  in  the  country.     Boots  and  shoes  are  manufac- 


64 


PARTS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


tured,  and  much  ice  and  fish  are  exported.  Lew- 
iston  manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 
What  city  is  just  opposite?  Auburn  has  large 
boot  and  shoe  factories.  Bangor,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Penobscot,  is  one  of  the  great 


lumber  depots  of  the  country.  Bid- 
deford  has  large  cotton  mills.  Au- 
gusta, the  capital,  manufactures 
cotton  goods  and  shoes.  Bath  is 
the  shipbuilding  center. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  What  natural 
boundaries  has  New  Hampshire?  What 
political  boundaries  ?  How  does  it  com- 
pare with  Maine  in  size  ?  What  two  rivers 
drain  the  larger  part  of  it  ?  What  moun- 
tain group  is  in  the  north  ?  Name  the  chief  peak.  Name  and  locate 
the  largest  lake ;  the  capital ;  the  seaport ;  three  other  cities. 


Because  of  its  beautiful  mountain  scenery  New  Hamp- 
shire has  been  called  the  "  Switzerland  of  America."  The 
forests  and  the  granite  quarries  give  rise  to  important  in- 
dustries. The  state  ranks  third  in  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes.  Cotton  manufacture  is  centered  chiefly 
at  Manchester  and  Nashua,  which  are  located  at  falls  on  the 
Merrimac.  Concord,  the  capital,  also  has  cloth  mills,  wagon 
and  carriage  factories,  and  granite  quarries.  The  fine  water 
power  at  Dover  is  utilized  by  large  cotton  and  woolen  mills. 

VERMONT.  What  lake  and  river  form  nearly  half  the  boundary  of 
Vermont?  What  states  and  country  border  it?  Compare  Vermont  with 
New  Hampshire  in  shape ;  in  size ;  in  surface.  Has  Vermont  a  seaport  ? 
Why  ?  Draw  the  main  divide  of  the  state.  Name  and  locate  the  mountains 
of  Vermont ;  the  capital ;  the  five  chief  cities  and  towns. 

Vermont  means  "  Green  Mountain."  The  rounded  sum- 
mits of  this  mountain  range  are  covered  with  forests  of 
evergreen  pines  and  spruces.  There  are  many  fine  dairy 
farms  and  sheep  ranges.  Much  hay  is  produced,  and  fine 
breeds  of  live  stock  are  kept.  Lumber  is  obtained  from 
the  forests,  and  more  maple  sugar  is  produced  than  in  any 
other  state.  Over  two  thirds  of  the  marble  quarried  in  the 
United  States,  and  much  granite  and  slate,  come  from 


Vermont.  Less  cotton  goods  are  made  than  in  the  other  New  England 
states.  Why  ?  Lumber,  woolens,  musical  instruments,  and  scales  are 
manufactured.  There  is  considerable  trade  with  Canada  through 
Lake   Champlain. 

Burlington,  the  chief  city,  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  an  important 
lumber  market.  Near  Rutland  there  are  extensive  marble  quarries; 
St.  Albans  is  a  center  for  dairy  products ;  and  Barre  has  fine  granite 
quarries 

MASSACHUSETTS.  By  what  states  and  waters  is  Massachusetts  surrounded? 
Turn  to  the  map  of  the  United  States  and  compare  with  New  Jersey  in  size ;  with 
New  York ;  with  Texas.  Describe  its  coast ;  its  surface.  Name  and  locate  its  moun- 
tains ;  rivers ;  capes  ;  bays ;  islands.  Name  and  locate  its  capital ;  four  other  sea- 
ports ;  three  cities  on  the  Merrimac ;  two  on  the  Connecticut ;  three  other  large  cities. 

Massachusetts,  although  one  of  the  smallest,  is  one  of  the  wealth- 
iest and  most  thickly  settled  states  of  the  Union.  Manufacture  and 
commerce  are  the  leading  industries.    In  this  state  are  manufactured 

half  of  the  boots  and  shoes  and  a 
very  large  part  of  the  cotton  and 
woolen  cloth  and  of  the  paper  made 
in  the  United  States.  The  com- 
merce, both  foreign  and  domestic, 
is  very  large.  Many  vessels  enter 
the  harbors,  and  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state  is  thickly  intersected 
by  railroads  from  the  north,  the 
west,  and  the  south. 

Massachusetts  is  foremost  among 
the  states  of  the  Union  in  the  quar- 
rying of  granite  and  in  the  value 
of  cod  fisheries. 

Boston  owes  its  growth  and  im- 
portance chiefly  to  the  great  size, 
depth,  and  excellence  of  its  beautiful  island-studded  har- 
bor at  the  head  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  It  has  become 
the  great  commercial  center  for  nearly  the  whole  of  New 
England,  receiving  and  distributing  throughout  the  sec- 
tion raw  materials, — wool,  cotton,  hides,  leather,  rubber, 
and  coal, —  and  receiving  in  return  manufactured  goods 


Paper  mill,  Holyoke,  Mass. 


for  distribution  by  sea  or  by  railroad. 


Public  Library,  Boston,  Mass. 


UNITED  STATES. 


65 


Though  not  particularly  noted  for  the  characteristic 
manufactures  of  the  section, — cloth  and  boots  and  shoes, — 
Boston  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  centers  of  the 
United  States;  the  making  of  clothing  and  fine  machinery 
and  the  printing  of  books  are  leading  industries. 


CONNECTICUT.  By  what  states  and  waters  is  Connecticut  sur- 
rounded ?  Describe  its  surface ;  drainage  ;  coast.  Name  and  locate  its 
capital ;  its  chief  cities. 

Much  tobacco  is  grown  in  the  Connecticut  valley ;  and 
in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  state  dairying 


Boston  is  among  the  oldest  of  the 
great  cities  of  the  country,  having  been 
founded  by  the  Puritans  in  1630  on  a 
small  peninsula  between  the  estuary  of 
the  Charles  River  and  the  harbor. 

The  peninsula  contained  three  low 
hills,  from  which  it  got  the  name  "  Tri- 
mountain  "  (or  Tremont).  Between 
these  hills  and  the  mainland  were  wide 
salt  marshes  which  were  flooded  by  the 
tides,  so  that  at  high  water  the  penin- 


A  shoe  factory,  Lynn,  Mass. 


sula  was  connected  with  the  mainland  only 
by  a  long,  narrow  "  neck"  of  land.  On  the 
highest  of  the  hills  was  built  the  Statehouse, 
which  commands  a  fine  view  over  the  city 
and  harbor.  The  people  long  since  widened 
thte  neck  by  filling  up  the  marshes,  so  that 
it  no  longer  resembles  an  isthmus. 

The  newly  made  land  and  much  of  the 
mainland  over  which  the  city  has  spread 
have  become  fine  residential  quarters,  while 
most  of  the  old  peninsula  is  given  up  to  business.  On  the  east  front, 
where  the  water  is  deep,  are  the  great  docks  where  foreign  commerce  is 
carried  on ;  the  estuary  of  the  Charles,  to  the  north,  is  used  more  for 
the  coast  trade.'  Nearly  the  whole  railroad  system  of  the  section  also 
radiates  from  this  city. 

Because  of  the  fine  schools,  colleges,  and  libraries  there,  and  the 
great  number  of  authors,  musicians,  and  artists  who  have  lived  in  or 
near  the  city,  the  citizens  often  call  Boston  the  "  Athens  of  America." 


Worcester  is  a  great  railroad  center,  and  is  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  machinery,  shoes,  and  wire.  At  Cambridge 
is  located  Harvard  University,  the  oldest  and  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  country.  Fall  River,  Lowell,  and  New  Bed- 
ford are  the  great  centers  of  cotton  manufacture;  Law- 
rence, of  both  cotton  and  wool;  Lynn,  Brockton,  and 
Haverhill  make  millions  of  boots  and  shoes;  and  at 
Springfield'  is  a  United  States  arsenal,  where  firearms  are 
made.  Holyoke  has  large  paper  mills.  Gloucester,  is  a 
great  fishing  port.    Salem  has  large  tanneries. 


Spinning  in  a  cotton  mill,  Fall  River,  Mass. 


that  of  Texas.    Name  a  bay, 
capital ;  three  other  cities. 


and  the  raising  of  vegetables  and  seeds 
are  important  industries.  In  Long  Is- 
and  Sound  many  oysters  are  dredged. 
The  state  has  valuable  sandstone 
quarries  and  is  especially  noted  for 
the  variety  of  its  manufactures. 

Besides  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  almost 
every  kind  of  fine  cutlery  and  hardware,  in- 
genious tools  and  machinery,  needles,  pins, 
hooks  and  eyes,  clocks,  firearms,  bicycles,  sew- 
ing machines,  and  all  kinds  of  brass  and  plated 
ware,  come  from  the  factories  of  this  state. 

New  Haven  is  the  largest  city  and 
chief  port.  It  is  the  seat  of  Yale 
University,  one  of  the  most  famous  in 
the  country.  Hartford 
is  the  headquarters  of 
many  insurance  com- 
panies, and  is  noted  for 
firearms,  bicycles,  and 
rubber  goods.  Bridge- 
port manufactures  car- 
riages and  sewing  ma- 
chines; Waterbury,  brass 
work,  clocks,  and  pins; 
and  Meriden,  silver  and 
plated  ware.  New  Brit- 
ain makes  locks  and 
builders'  hardware. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  De- 
scribe the  "position  of  Rhode 
Island ;  its  drainage.  Turn 
to  the  map  of  the  United 
States  and  compare  its  size 
with  that  of  Delaware;  with 


a   cape,  and  a  river  of  this  state;   its 


Rhode  Island  is  the  smallest  and  most  densely  populated 
of  all  the  states,  and  in  proportion  to  its  size  has  more 
manufacturing  than  any  other. 

Providence,  the  second  city  in  New  England,  contains 
the  largest  cotton  factory  in  the  world,  and  exceeds  all 
other  cities  in  this  country  in  the  manufacture  of  jewelry. 
It  also  has  many  woolen  mills.  Pawtucket  and  Woonsocket 
also  are  centers  of  cotton  and  woolen  manufacture.  New- 
port is  a  famous  summer  resort. 

Supplemental  Work.  Tell  one  anecdote  of  Revolutionary  times  in 
New  England.  Read  "  A  New  England  Girlhood,"  by  Lucy  Larcom,  or 
"  A  New  England  Boyhood,"  by  E.  E.  Hale.  Read  or  recite  one  selec- 
tion from  Vols.  25  and  26  of  "  Poems  of  Places,"  edited  by  Longfellow. 
Describe  as  fully  as  Boston  is  described  one  other  city  or  place  in  New 
England.  Write  next  day  what  you  remember  of  the  description  given 
by  one  of  your  schoolmates. 


66 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


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Longitude 


THE  NORTHERN  SECTION. 

Which  states  of  this  section  are  crossed  by  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains? Which  state  lies  wholly  in  the  Atlantic  plain?  Which  states 
he  between  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River? 
Which  states  lie  mostly  in  the  Lake  plains  ?  Which  lie  mostly  in  the 
Prairie  plains  ?  Which  lie  partly  in  the  Great  Plains  ?  Which  quarter 
of  the  United  States  embraces  most  of  the  Northern  Section? 

Although  snow  lies  on  the  ground  in  winter  for  a  month 
or  more  throughout  the  greater  part  of  this  section,  and 
the  winters  in  the  northwest  are  long  and  cold,  the  summers 
in  nearly  all  parts  are  warm  enough,  and  have  sufficient 


rainfall,  for  the  most  useful  grains  to  grow  and  ripen.  Ex- 
cept in  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  the  surface  is  generally 
smooth  and  flat,  and  the  soil  nearly  everywhere  is  deep 
and  fertile,  the  old  Laurentian  glacier  having  deposited 
detritus  in  this  section  instead  of  having  scraped  it  off 
into  the  sea,  as  in  New  England. 

Because  of  these  advantages,  agriculture  is  the  most 
important  industry,  and  because  of  the  use  of  improved 
agricultural  implements,  by  which  one  man  here  produces 
as  much  as  four  or  five  men  in  any  foreign  country,  this  has 
become  the  greatest  food-producing  region  of  the  world. 


In  every,  state  of  the  section,  and  especially  in  the 
states  of  the  Prairie  plains  and  the  Lake  plains,  the  chief 
food  crops  for  man  and  beast — wheat,  corn,  oats,  hay,  and 
potatoes — are  raised  in  enormous  quantities,  so  that -about 
five  sixths  of  our  country's  yield  of  all  these  articles  comes 
from  these  states.  Other  food  crops  of  lesser  importance 
are  grown,  as  well  as  the  bulk  of  the  tobacco  crop  of  the 
United  States. 

Domestic  animals  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  crops 
for  food,  and  hence  most  of  the  hogs,  cattle,  and  butter 
and  eggs  produced  in  the  country  come  from  this  section. 


On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  section  occur  the  greatest 
oyster  fisheries  of  the  United  States. 

Where  are  the  most  heavily  forested  parts  of  the  sec- 
tion ?  (map,  p.  59.)  In  all  these  regions  lumbering  is  an 
important  industry.  The  pine  belt  of  the  Great  Lakes  is 
one  of  the  greatest  timber-producing  regions  of  the  Union. 

Where  are  the  largest  coal  fields  of  the  country  T  (p.  59.) 
Where  is  the  principal  petroleum  region  f  Where  is  most 
of  the  iron  ore  of  the  country  produced  ?  In  what  part 
of  this  section  are  there  rich  copper  mines!  There  are 
valuable  lead  and  zinc  deposits  west  of  the  Ozark  Moun- 


68 


PARTS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


tains.    In  all  these  regions  mining  is  an  ex 
tensive  industiy. 

Mention  the  important  food  crops  and 
two  very  important  meat  products  for  whicM 
this  section  is  noted;  two  other  important 
raw  vegetable  materials;  the  most  impor- 
tant mineral  products. 

From  the  city  map  on  p.  59  locate  the 
great  manufacturing  region  of  the  United 
States.  What  part  of  this  section  does  it 
embrace  ?  In  the  Northern  Section  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  raw  materials  produced  in 
the  section — food,  lumber,  and  iron  and 
steel — forms  the  bulk  of  the  manufacturing 
industry. 

Throughout  the  grain-  and  meat-producing  regions 
of  the  central  part  of  the  section,  flour  milling  and 
the  packing  and  curing  of  meat  are  characteristic  in- 
dustries.   In  the  region  bordering  the  Great  Lakes 
and  on  the  Alleghany  plateaus  are  the  great  sawmills 
of  the  country,  while  the  iron  and  steel  industries  are 
centered  at  points  where  coal  and  iron  ore,  with  lime- 
stone for  flux,  can  be  most  cheaply  brought  together. 
The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  also  very  important 
in  this  region,  especially  in  the  southern  and  south- 
eastern parts.    East  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  the  manufactures  are 
more  varied  and,  like  those  of  New  England,  consume  much  raw  ma- 
terial not  produced  in  the  section.    Why  ?    The  weaving  of  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk,  and  the  refining  of  sugar,  are  extensive  industries  of  this  kind. 

What  three  bays  indent  the  east  coast  of  this  section  ? 
How  were  they  formed?  They  are  all  deep  enough  for 
the  largest  vessels,  and  contain  the  best  harbors  on  our 
Atlantic  coast  south  of  New  England.  What  river 
flows  into  New  York  Bay  ?  What  one  flows  into  Delaware 
Bay?  Name  the  two  largest  that  flow  into  Chesapeake 
Bay.  These  four  rivers  rise  west  of  the  Appalachian 
ridges  and  cross  the  ridges  in  a  series  of  deep  water 
gaps,  while  south  of  the  Potomac  Eiver,  Blue  Ridge  rises 
as  an  almost  continuous  wall  between  the  coast  and  the 
Mississippi  valley.  Turn  to  the  railroad  map  (p.  60)  and 
tell  what  effect  this  peculiar  Appalachian  drainage  has 
had  upon  the  railroad  system  of  the  country.  Thus  the 
seaports  on  the  three  bays  of  this  section  are  among  the 


Niagara  Falls, 
est  cataracts  in  the  world 


The  Erie  Canal  at  JLockport,  N.  V. 


largest  cities  of  'the  country, 
and  through  them  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  our  foreign 
commerce  passes.  Why  ? 
West  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  the  smooth  sur- 
face of  the  section  is  covered 
with  a  perfect  network  of 
railroads,  by  which  raw  ma- 
terials are  collected  at  manu- 
facturing centers  and  the 
manufactured  products  are 
distributed.  The  Great  Lakes 
are  all  connected  by  navi- 
gable straits  or  canals,  and, 
because  transportation  is 
cheaper  by  water  than  by  rail, 
they  form  a  commercial  route 
of  great  importance. 

The  natural  channel  between  lakes 
Erie  and  Ontario  is  Niagara  River, 
which  in  its  course  plunges  over  a 
precipice  about  160  feet  high,  form- 
ing Niagara  Falls  —  one  of  the  grand- 
As  the  falls  interrupt  the  navigation  of  the 
river,  the  Welland  Canal  has  been  constructed  between  the  lakes, 
through  Canada.  Canals  have  also  been  constructed  in  Canada  around 
the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  tidewater  at  Montreal. '  But  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is  so  far  north  that  it  is  closed  by  ice  many 
months  in  winter,  and  besides  is  in  Canada.  Advantage  has  been  taken 
of  the  water  gaps  and  the  low  valley  of  the  Hudson  to  construct  the 
Erie  Canal  from  that  river  to  Lake  Erie,  thus  securing  a  most  important 
water  route  through  our  own  country  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  tidewater. 

The  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Missouri  rivers  are  navi- 
gable for  great  distances,  and  many  of  their  larger  tribu- 
taries for  shorter  distances,  and  are  much  used  for 
transporting  coal,  lumber,  and  other  bulky  freight.  Sev- 
eral canals  have  been  constructed  through  the  low  divide 
to  connect  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Mississippi  system. 

The  Northern  Section  contains  about  two  thirds  of  all 
the  people  in  the  United  States,  and  nearly  three  fourths 
of  all  the  foreign  immigrants  in  the  country. 

The  Northern  Appalachian  States.  The  seven  states 
of  this  section  which  are  crossed  by  the  Appalachian  re- 
gion or  the  Atlantic  plain  are  sometimes  called  the  "  Mid- 
dle States."  A  very  large  part  of  our  coal  and  petroleum, 
and  much  iron  ore,  come  from  this  region.  Manufactur- 
ing and  the  production  of  food  crops  are  more  important 
in  the  northern  part,  while  the  production  of  oysters  and 
tobacco  are  of  great  importance  in  the  southern. 

NEW  YORK.  What  states  and  country  border  New  York  1  What 
three  lakes  form  part  of  the  boundary?  What  river  system  drains 
the  northern  part?  Trace  its  divide  across  the  state.  To  what  great- 
river  system  does  the  southwestern  part  drain  ?  In  what  slope  is  the 
southeastern  half  of  the  state  ?  Name  and  locate  the  mountains  of  New 
York;  the  islands;  the  lakes.  By  what  river  are  the  Finger  Lakes 
drained  into  Lake  Ontario?  What  is  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Hud- 
son ?  Name  and  locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  city  ;  the  chief  lake  port; 
a  city  on  the  Genesee  River ;  three  other  large  cities. 


UNITED    STATES. 


69 


New  York,  the  "Empire  State,"  ranks  first  in  the  Union 
in  wealth,  population,  manufacture,  and  commerce,  and  is 
one  of  the  leading  states  in  agriculture.  Its  position  is 
favorable  for  both  foreign  and  domestic  commerce. 

The  Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys  afford  the  lowest  route  across  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Central  Low- 
land, and  before  the  days  of  railroads  nearly  all  freight  was  shipped  by  the 
Erie  Canal  through  this  "  natural  gate- 
way." This  made  New  York  city,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  the  great 
Atlantic  seaport  of  the  United  States, 
and  made  New  York  the  Empire  State, 
with  its  many  large  cities  along  this 
route.  Railroads  have  since  been  built 
westward  over  the  mountains  from 
other  good  harbors,  as  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  and  Norfolk,  but  the  charges 
for  carrying  freight  over  them  are 
still  regulated  by  the  cost  of  carnage 
through  the  low  "  natural  gateway." 
Canals  connect  the  Hudson  with  the 
St.  Lawrence  through  Lake  Champlain, 
and  with  the  Delaware  and  the  coal 
fields  of  Pennsylvania. 


by  far  the  greatest  industry.  Large  quantities  of  raw  sugar  from  the 
West  Indies  are  refined,  and  near  by  petroleum,  flowing  from  western 
Pennsylvania  through  pipe  lines,  is  made  into  kerosene.  More  books, 
magazines,  and  newspapers  are  published  in  New  York  than  in  any 
other  city  of  the  United  States. 

So  much  money  is  controlled  by  the  banks  of  New  York  that  when 
great  business  enterprises  are  started  anywhere  in  the  country  the 
capital  required  is  generaEy  obtained  in  New  York. 

Columbia  University,  one  of  the 


New  York  and  Brooklyn  Bridge,  East  River. 


largest  in  the  country,  is  located 
in  New  York. 

The  lower  half  of  Manhattan  Is- 
land embraces  the  wholesale  busi- 
ness region,  and  it  is  much  crowded. 
Thousands  of  the  business  men 
live  ten  or  more  miles  from  their 
places  of  business  —  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  city,  on  Long  Island,  on 
Staten  Island,  and  in  New  Jersey. 

Buffalo  is  the  great  lake 
port  and  railroad  center  of 
western   New  York.    What 


sup- 
one 


E- 


There  are  many  waterfalls  in 
the  state,  and  coal  is  easily  ob- 
tained from  the  Penn- 
sylvania coal  fields. 
Therefore,  manufactur- 
ing is  extensive.  Cloth- 
ing, packed  meats,  ma- 
chinery, carpets  and 
woolen  goods,  beer,  and 
flour  are  the  chief  manu- 
factures. 

New  York  is  noted  for 
its  dairy  products,  and 
for  its  large  crops  of 
barley,  buckwheat,  and 
hops.  The  state 
plies  more  than 
third  of  the  salt  pro- 
duced   in    the    Union. 

New  York  city  is  the  largest  and  most  important  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  second  only  to  London  among  the 
great  cities  of  the  world. 

New  York  city  was  founded  by  the  Dutch  on  Manhattan  Island,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  a  few  years  before  Boston  was  settled.  Name 
the  waters  surrounding  Manhattan  Island.  After  spreading  over  the 
island  and  the  mainland  to  the  north,  the  city  has  taken  within  its  limits 
Staten  Island  and  the  west  end  of  Long  Island,  including  the  great  city 
of  Brooklyn,  besides  several  large  suburbs.  This  greater  New  York 
contains  about  three  and  a  half  millions  of  people,  and  covers  a  land 
area  of  about  360  square  miles. 

Railroad  lines  from  the  west  and  south  end  in  Jersey  City,  the  pas- 
sengers and  loaded  freight  cars  being  ferried  to  Manhattan  Island. 
Railroads  from  the  north  and  east  cross  the  Harlem  River  and  reach 
the  heart  of  the  city.  The  harbor  is  large  enough  to  accommodate 
many  hundreds  of  ships.  More  than  half  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
country  is  carried  on  through  this  port. 

New  York  is  the  chief  manufacturing  city  of  the  country.  Nearly 
everything  needed  by  man  is  made  here,  but  the  making  of  clothing  is 


Part  of  the  harbor  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


Collar  factory,  Troy,  N.  Y. 

important  canal  leads  eastward  from  this  city  ? 

The  transshipment  of  wheat,  flour,  and  meat 

from  the  West  is  a  very  important  industry. 

Much  coal  and  salt  are  shipped  westward. 
Lumber,  flour,  and  packed  meats  are  the  chief  manufac- 
tures. Part  of  the  water  power  of  Niagara  Falls  is  used 
to  generate  electricity,  some  of  which  is  used  in  Buffalo. 
Rochester,  at  the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River,  manufac- 
tures clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  and  flour,  and  has  many 
nurseries  in  its  vicinity.  Syracuse  manufactures  cloth- 
ing, chemicals,  and  agricultural  machinery,  and  is  near 
valuable  salt  works.  Utica  has  large  rose  nurseries,  and 
is  the  chief  cheese  market  of  central  New  York.  Albany, 
the  capital,  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  has  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  stoves  and  lumber.  Troy  is  near 
the  junction  of  what  canals  ?  It  is  also  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water in  the  Hudson.  It  has  important  foundries  and  stove 
works,  and  large  manufactories  of  shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs. 
At  West  Point  is  the  United  States  Military  Academy. 
Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca,  is  among  our  largest  insti- 
tutions of  learning. 


76 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Locomotive  works,  Philadelphia. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  What  states  border 
Pennsylvania  ?  Describe  its  surface.  Trace 
across  the  state  the  principal  divide.  What 
two  large  rivers  are  on  the  eastern  slope ; 
on  the  western?  Into  what  does  each 
flow?  Locate  the  capital;  the  chief  city; 
two  other  important  cities  of  the  eastern 
slope  ;  three  of  the  western. 

Pennsylvania  ranks  first  among 
the  states  in  the  production  of  coal, 
and  second  in  population  and  the 
value  of  manufactures.  Bitumi- 
nous coal  is  found  in  the  Alleghany 
plateaus,  and  anthracite  coal  in 
the  rock  folds  of  the  ridges  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  state.  Much  petroleum  is  obtained  in  the  Allegheny 
and  Monongahela  valleys. 

The  characteristic  manufactures  of  the  state,  par- 
ticularly of  the  western  part,  are  iron  and  steel,  which 
require  much  fuel.  In  this  industry  Pennsylvania  ex- 
ceeds all  the  other  states  combined.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state,  the  weaving  of  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk, 
and  the  making  of  engines  and  machinery  are  important 
industries. 

From  the  timber-covered  mountains  lumber  is  floated 
down  the  rivers  to  the  sawmills  and  planing  mills,  and 
with  the  oak  and  hemlock  bark  much  leather  is  tanned  in 
the  northwestern  half  of  the  state. 

The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  of  the  eastern  lowland  is  fer- 
tile and  gives  to  Pennsylvania  a  high  rank  as  a  wheat- 
growing  and  dairying  state. 

The  water  gaps  through  the  Appalachian  ridges  have 
made  the  state  the  great  railroad  thoroughfare  between 
the  seaboard  and  the  upper  Mississippi  valley.  Canals 
connect  the  bituminous  coal  regions  with  Lake  Erie  and 
the  anthracite  coal  regions  with  New  York,  Delaware,  and 
Chesapeake  bays. 

Philadelphia  is  the  third  city  in  the  Union  in  popula- 
tion. It  was  founded  about  fifty  years  later  than  New 
York  or  Boston,  and  for  a  long  time  it  was  called  "  The 
Quaker  City."  Why  ?  It  was  laid  out  between  the  Dela- 
ware and  Schuylkill  rivers  near  their  junction,  though  it 


Smelting  furnaces,  Pittsburg. 


locomotives, 
industries. 


and 


Rug  weaving,  Philadelphia. 

has  now  spread  far  west  of  the 
Schuylkill  and  along  the  Delaware 
for  many  miles.  Ocean  steamers 
ascend  to  its  wharves,  and  the  city 
exports  much  coal. 

The  nearness  of  the  anthracite 
coal  region  makes  fuel  plenty  and 
cheap,  and  Philadelphia  has  be- 
come one  of  the  greatest  manu- 
facturing cities  of  the  country. 

Chief  among  its  manufactures 
are  woolen  goods,  carpets,  and 
clothing.  Sugar  refining,  and  the 
making  of  heavy  iron  machinery, 
steel  steamships,    are   also   important 


For  over  a  century  Philadelphia  was  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the 
United  States,  but  as  the  Central  Lowland  became  settled  the  Erie  Canal 
was  made,  and  trade  followed  the  natural  route  through  the  low  Mohawk 
valley ;  so  New  York  became  the  greater  seaport. 

Congress  was  in  session  in  Philadelphia  when  it  declared  the  inde- 
pendence of  this  country  in  1776.  After  the  Revolutionary  War  Phila- 
delphia was  the  capital  of  the  country  for  several  years,  and  the  Federal 
Constitution  was  prepared  there.  Independence  Hall,  in  which  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  made  and  the  Constitution  framed,  is 
still  standing  and  is  much  visited. 

In  Philadelphia  is  located  the  great  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  together  form  the  great  center 
of  population  in  western  Pennsylvania.  They  are  in  the 
heart  of  the  bituminous  coal,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas 
region.  More  than  half  the  coke  of  the  country,  and  one 
fifth  of  the  iron  and  steel,  are  made  in  and  near  Pitts- 
burg. This  too  is  the  greatest  center  in  the  world  for 
the  manufacture  of  plate  glass.  Allegheny  has  important 
tanneries. 

Before  the  days  of  railroads  these  cities  possessed  the  great  commer- 
cial advantage  of  the  river  routes  afforded  by  the  Ohio  and  the  two 
rivers  which  here  unite  to  form  it,  and  millions  of  bushels  of  coal  are 
still  shipped  from  Pittsburg  down  the  Ohio. 

Scranton  is  a  mining  center  of  the  anthracite  coal  re- 
gion. It  is  also  a  railroad  center,  and  has  large  iron 
and  steel  works,  breweries,  and  silk  mills.    Beading  is 


UNITED   STATES. 


71 


in  a  rich  agricultural  region,  and  receives  by  canal  cheap 
fuel  from  the  anthracite  regions  to  supply  its  iron  and 
steel  works  and  foundries.  Erie  has  a  fine  harbor  and 
a  large  trade  in  iron  ore,  lumber,  and  coal.  It  has  im- 
portant iron  works,  foundries,  and  flour  mills.  Harris- 
burg,  the  capital,  is  located  in  a  fertile  region,  and  manu- 


factures   iron,    steel,    and   rail- 
road cars. 

NEW  JERSEY.  Describe  the  situa- 
tion of  New  Jersey.  What  two  rivers 
and  what  bay  form  part  of  its  bound- 
'ary?  Describe  the  coast.  Locate  the 
mountains ;  the  capes ;  two  canals ;  the 
capital ;  three  large  cities  in  the  north- 
ern part ;   one  in  the  western  part. 

New  Jersey  is  one  of  the 
smallest  states.  The  beaches 
of  its  seacoast  are  much  re- 
sorted to  during  the  summer. 
The  state  is  crossed  by  two 
canals  and  many  railroads,  and 


Silk  factory,  Paterson, 


the  northeastern  part  is  a 
great  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing region.  The  state 
ranks  first  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  silk,  pottery,  and  cast 
iron  pipe.  The  making  of 
leather  and  machinery,  and 
the  refining  of  petroleum, 
are  important  industries. 
Vegetables  and  fruits  are 
raised  in  large   quantities. 

Jersey  City  is  practically  a 
part  of  New  York  city.  It 
is  the  terminus  of  the  railroads  from  the  south  and  west, 
and  is  bordered  by  many  steamship  docks.  It  contains 
large  chemical  works  and  soap  factories.  Hoboken  and 
Bayonne  are  continuous  with  Jersey  City. 

Neivarlc  refines  metals  and  manufactures  machinery, 
leather,  and  thread.  In  Paterson  more  silk  is  manufac- 
tured than  in  any  other  American  city.  Trenton  is  one 
of  the  leading  pottery  centers  of  the  country.  Camden, 
really  a  suburb  of  Philadelphia,  manufactures  oilcloths. 


Gathering  oysters,  Chesapeake  Bay. 


DELAWARE.  Give  the  physical  boundaries  of  the  peninsula  of 
which  Delaware  is  a  part;  the  political  boundaries  of  Delaware.  Com- 
pare it  in  size  with  New  Jersey.    Locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  city. 

The  northern  part  of  Delaware  belongs  to  the  manufac- 
turing region  about  Philadelphia;  the  southern  part  to 
the  vegetable-  and  fruit-growing  region,  peaches  being 
particularly  excellent  and  abundant.  The  manu- 
facture of  the  crates  and  baskets  in  which  these 
products  are  shipped°forms  a  common  industry 
in  the  state. 

Wilmington  contains  almost  half  the  popula- 
tion of  the  state,  and  is  noted  for  its  car  works, 
shipyards,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  leather 
and  gunpowder. 

MARYLAND.  Compare  the  seacoast  of  Maryland 
with  its  bay  coast.  What  other  states  own  parts  of  the 
peninsula  including  eastern  Maryland  ?  What  river  forms 
most  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Maryland?  By  what 
states  is  Maryland  bounded  ?  Which  part  is  in  the  Atlantic 
plain?  Which  is  in  the  mountain  region?  Locate  the 
capital ;  the  chief  city ;  one  other  city. 

The  short  seacoast  of  Maryland  is  fringed 
with  barrier  beaches,  but  Chesapeake  Bay  con- 
tains many  good  harbors,  and  the  chief  oyster 

beds  of  the  country. 
Fruits,  vegetables,  and 
tobacco  are  important 
products.  In  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  state  are 
valuable  coal  mines. 

Baltimore  is  one  of  the 
cities  that  bas  grown  up 
on  the  Fall  line.  Its 
fine  harbor,  in  the  estu- 
ary of  Patapsco  River, 
is  nearer  the  great  grain 
fields  of  the  Central 
Lowland  tban  is  that  of 
any  other  Atlantic  sea- 
port, and  to  it  the  water 
gaps  of  the  Potomac 
River  afford  a  convenient  route.  For  these  reasons  Balti- 
more has  become  one  of  the  great  food-shipping  ports. 

The  making  of  clothing,  the  canning  and  preserving  of  fruit  and  vege- 
tables from  the  surrounding  region  and  of  oysters  from  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  are  thfe  principal  manufacturing  industries. 

Baltimore  is  the  seat  of  the  famous  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Cumberland  has  a  canal  to  tidewater  in  the  Potomac, 
and  is  the  shipping  point  for  the  Maryland  coal  regions. 
It  has  important  iron  and  steel  works  and  foundries. 

At  Annapolis  is  the  United  States  Naval  Academy. 

^THE  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  The  District  of  Columbia  was 
given  to  the  United  States  by  Maryland  as  a  site  for  the  national  capital. 

Washington,  the  most  beautiful  city  in  the  Union,  is 
situated  where  the  Potomac  River  crosses  the  Fall  line. 
Unlike  most  cities,  "Washington  did  not  grow  up  from  an 
irregular  village,  but  a  large  capital  city  was  planned 


72 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Glass  furnace,  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

before  it  was  built  at  all;  hence  its  streets  are  straight 
arid  broad.  When  the  settled  part  of  the  United  States 
was  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  a  position 
was  chosen  for  its  capital  about  midway  between  its 
northern  and  southern  limits.  Why  was  the  location  ad- 
vantageous ?  Has  it  the  same  convenience 
now  ?    For  whom  was  the  city  named  ? 

Not  only  do  the  President  and  the  Vice  President 
of  the  United  States  live  in  Washington,  but  there  also 
reside  the  members  of  the  President's  Cabinet  and  the 
foreign  ministers,  who  come  to  our  country  from  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  to  represent  their  govern- 
ments and  to  look  after  the  interests  of  their  people. 
The  senators  and  representatives  meet  in  the  Capitol 
(p.  55),  and  Congress  is  in  session  for  several  months  of 
each  year,  making  laws  for  the  entire  country. 

Though  "Washington  is  built  where  water  power  can 
be  obtained,  and  where  navigation  from  the  sea  is 
possible,  the  city  has  little  commerce  or  manufactur- 
ing, other  than  government  printing.  It  has  grown 
up  simply  as  the  national  capital. 


VIRGINIA.  What  states  border  Virginia?  Trace 
through  the  state  the  divide  of  the  Mississippi  basin. 
Name  three  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope;  two  of  the  Mississippi  slope. 
Locate  two  capes ;  the  mountain  ranges ;  the  capital ;  the  chief  seaport ; 
three  other  important  cities. 

More  than  half  the  people  of  the  state  are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Virginia  ranks  among  the  foremost  states  in 
the  Union  in  the  production  of  tobacco,  and  the  peanut 
crop  is  the  largest  in  the  country. 

There  are  valuable  coal  and  iron  mines.  By  means 
of  the  valleys  and  water  gaps  of  the  Kanawha,  Roanoke, 
James,  and  Potomac  rivers,  several  railway  lines  cross  the 
mountains  and  convey  coal  and  other  products  to  the  fine 
harbors  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Great  Valley  west  of 
Blue  Ridge  is  very  fertile.  In  it  are  the  caverns  of  Luray 
and  the  Natural  Bridge.    How  were  these  formed  ?    (p.  15.) 

Richmond  and  Petersburg,  on  the  Fall  line,  manufacture 
much  tobacco.  Norfolk  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  an  im- 
portant shipping  point  for  coal,  cotton,  lumber,  fish,  and 
peanuts.  A  United  States  Navy  Yard  is  located  here. 
Eoanoke  has  large  iron  and  machine  works.  Newport  News 
is  an  important  railroad  terminus  and  seaport.  Lynchburg 
is  a  great  tobacco  market. 


Natural  Bridge,  Virginia. 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  What  rivers  form  part  of  the  boundary  of  West 
Virginia  1  What  is  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state  1  Trace  the  main 
divide  across  the  state.  What  river  basin  embraces  most  of  the  state  T 
Locate  the  capital ;  three  cities  on  the  Ohio. 

In  the  production  of  petroleum,  coal,  and  natural  gas, 
West  Virginia  is  one  of  the  foremost  states.  Much  salt 
also  is  produced.  There  are  extensive  forests  and  fine 
grazing  lands  on  the  plateaus,  while  farming  is  pursued 
chiefly  in  the  fertile  lower  lands  farther  west. 

mieeling,  in  the  coal  and  gas  region,  manufactures 
iron,  glass,  and  steel.  What  cities  in  Pennsylvania  have 
the  same  industries?  Huntington  ships  coal  and  lumber, 
and  Parkersburg  is  in  the  oil  region. 

Supplemental  Work.  Tell  one  anecdote  of  the  Dutch  in  New  York, 
the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania,  or  the  early  settlers  in  some  other  north- 
ern Appalachian  state.  Read  "  Stories  of  New  Jersey,"  by  Stockton, 
"  Stories  of  Pennsylvania,"  by  Walton  and  Brumbaugh,  "  The  Story  of 
the  City  of  New  York,"  or  of  Washington,  by  Todd.  Describe  as  fully  as 
New  York  is  described  one  other  city  in  this  section.  Read  or  recite 
one  selection  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vols.  27  and  28. 

The  Ohio  Valley  and  Upper  Lake  States.    The  six 

states  of  this  section  that  lie  between  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River  are 
sometimes  called  the  "  East  Central  States." 
Through  these  states  trace  the  divide  be- 
tween the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi 
basins.  Which  states  are  in  both  basins  ? 
Which  are  in  only  one  basin?  A  larger 
or  smaller  part  of  each  of  these  states  lies 
in  the  Prairie  plains,  and  all  are  heavy  pro- 
ducers of  grain  and  meat.  Which  of  them 
contain  extensive  forests?  Which  are  in 
the  coal  region  ?  (map,  p.  59.)   

OHIO.  Give  the  natural  boundaries  of  Ohio.  What 
states  border  it  ?  Name  one  tributary  of  Lake  Erie ; 
two  of  the  Ohio.  Trace  through  the  state  the  main 
divide.  Locate  the  capital ;  two  lake  ports ;  five  other 
important  cities. 

Ohio  has  a  high  rank  both  as  a  manufacturing  and  as  an 
agricultural  state,  and  it  is  one  of  the  first  wool-growing 
states  in  the  Union.  It  ranks  first  in  the  production  of 
petroleum  and  natural  gas.     The  abundance  of  iron  ore 


Tobacco  field,  Virginia. 


UNITED   STATES. 


73 


and  bituminous  coal  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  state,  and  the  ease  with  which  ore  can 
be  obtained  from  the  Lake  Superior  re- 
gions by  way  of  the  G-reat  Lakes,  give  to 
Ohio  great  advantages  for  manufacturing. 
Iron  and  steel,  agricultural  machinery,  rail- 
road cars,  flour,  and  liquors  are  all  very 
important  manufactures.  Fruit  farming, 
dairying,  and  tobacco  raising  are  carried 
on  extensively.  What  advantages  has  the 
state  for  commerce  ? 

Cleveland,  the  largest 
city  of  Ohio,  and  Cin- 
cinnati are  among  the 
ten  greatest  cities  in 
the  country.  Both  are 
important  as  commer- 
cial and  manufacturing 
centers. 


Cincinnati  was  one  of  the 
first  places  founded  after 
the  Revolutionary  War  in 
the  public  lands  north  of  the 
Ohio  River,  and  was  settled 
by  emigrants  from  New  Jer- 
sey. It  is  situated  on  the 
broad  flood  plain  of  the  Ohio, 


Public  landing,  Cincinnati. 


Inclined-plane  railroad,  Cincinnati. 


between  the  Great  and  Little  Miami  rivers,  and  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Licking  —  the  valleys  of  these  streams  affording  at  this  point 
gradual  descents  to  the  Ohio  River  from  the  general  upland  surface 
of  the  country.  In  the  days  before  railroads  existed,  the  navigable 
Ohio  was  the  chief  trade  route  of  this  whole  region,  and  Cincinnati  soon 
became  the  greatest  commercial  center  of  the  Ohio  basin.  Coal  is  ob- 
tained cheaply  by  river  from  Pittsburg,  and  so  Cincinnati  has  become 
a  great  manufacturing  center.  The  chief  manufactures  are  clothing, 
distilled  and  malt  liquors,  machinery,  carriages,  and  furniture.  The 
part  of  the  city  in  the  flood  plain  is  now  devoted  largely  to  business, 
while  the  residential  part  on  the  surrounding  hill  tops  is  reached  by 
numerous  inclined-plane  railroads  up  the  steep  face  of  the  bluffs. 

Cleveland.  When,  shortly  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  several 
states  surrendered  to  the  nation  their  claims  to  the  public  lands,  Con- 
necticut reserved  to  herself  a  tract  in  what  is  now  northeastern  Ohio. 
Soon  after  Cincinnati  was  founded,  General  Cleaveland  was  sent  from 
Connecticut  to  survey  this  "  Western  Reserve  "  and  to  lay  out  a  "capital 
town.''  The  town  was  laid  out  where  the  small  Cuyahoga  River  joins 
Lake  Erie,  and  thus  Cleveland  was  started.  Soon  after  the  Erie  Canal 
was  finished,  a  canal  was  constructed  from  Cleveland  across  the  low 
divide  and  on  to  the  Ohio  River  by  way  of  the  Scioto  valley,  and  then 
railroads  were  built.  Its  nearness  to  coal  and  iron  beds  and  petroleum 
fields  to  the  east  and  south,  and  the  low  rate  at  which  grain,  lumber, 
and  iron  ore  can  be  received  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes,  have  made 
Cleveland  a  great  commercial  city  as  well  as  a  great  manufacturing 
center.  The  chief  industries  are  the  making  of  iron  and  steel  and 
machinery,  the  refining  of  petroleum,  the  milling  of  lumber,  and  ship- 
building for  the  lake  trade. 

Columbus,  the  capital,  has  canal  communication  with 
Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio,  is  an  important  trade  center,  and 
manufactures  carriages  and  cars.  Toledo,  at  the  lake  ter- 
minus of  a  canal  from  Cincinnati,  carries  on  an  extensive 
lake  commerce  and  has  great  flour  mills.  Dayton,  Spring- 
field, and  Akron  manufacture  agricultural  implements,  and 
Dayton  has  extensive  car  shops  and  limestone  quarries. 
Youngstown  has  large  iron  and  steel  works. 


INDIANA.  What  waters 
form  part  of  the  boundary  ? 
About  how  much  lake  coast 
has  Indiana?  What  states 
border  it?  What  tributary 
of  the  Ohio  drains  most  of  the 
state?  Locate  the  capital; 
two  cities  on  the  Ohio ;  two 
in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state;  one  west  of  the  capital. 

Indiana  holds  very 
high  rank  as  an  agricul- 
tural state,  and  manu- 
facturing is  facilitated 
by  the  abundance  of 
fuel  from  the  great 
middle  coal  field,  as 
well  as  by  the  natural  gas  found  in  the  state. 
In  order  to  pass  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, most  of  the  great  east  and  west  railroads 
of  the  country  cross  this  state.  What  com- 
mercial highway  forms  its  southern  boundary  ? 
Indianapolis,  an  important  railroad  center,  has 
an  immense  domestic  trade.  A  belt  railroad 
encircles  the  city  and  connects  all  the  centering 
lines  with  the  packing  houses,  grain  elevators, 
flour  mills,  stock  yards,  and  machine  shops. 
Evansville  is  the  chief  shipping  port  of  southern  Indi- 
ana, and  has  flour  and  lumber  mills.  Fort  Wayne  and 
South  Bend  are  near  the  timber  region,  and  manufacture 
railroad  cars,  wagons,  and  agricultural  implements. 
Terre  Haute,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Wabash, 
has  large  distilleries,  and  Muncie  and  New  Albany  manu- 
facture glass  and  iron  and  steel. 

ILLINOIS.  Name  the  boundary  waters  of  Illinois.  Compare  the  ex- 
tent of  lake  coast  with  that  of  Indiana.  What  states  border  Illinois  ? 
Trace  the  Mississippi-St.  Lawrence  divide  through  the  state.  Name 
three  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  Name  the  capital ;  the  great  lake 
port ;  four  other  cities.  How  can  a  cargo  of  grain  go  from  Chicago 
to  the  Atlantic  ports? 

Illinois  has  been  called  the  "  Prairie  State."  It  is  in  the 
heart  of  the  corn-,  wheat-,  and  meat-producing  region,  and 


Part  of  the  harbor  at  Cleveland. 


74 


PARTS   OF   THE  EARTH. 


Lumber  yards  at  Chicago. 


a  canal  across  the  low  divide 


is  one  of  the  greatest 
food-producing  states 
of  the  Union.  The  mid- 
dle coal  field  underlies 
almost  the  entire  state, 
and  has  enabled  Illinois 
to  take  a  very  high  rank 
as  a  coal-producing  and 
manufacturing  state. 
It  has  more  miles  of 
railroad  than  any  other 
state,  and  is  traversed 
by  a  navigable  water 
route  connecting  the 
Mississippi  River  with 
Lake  Michigan  by  way 
of  the  Illinois  River  and 
to  Chicago. 

Chicago  is  the  largest  city  on  the  continent,  except  New 
York,  and  it  is  the  greatest  market  in  the  world  for  meat 
and  grain. 

It  was  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  Chicago  Eiver,  which  rises  so 
near  a  branch  of  the  Illinois  River  that  it  was  a  favorite  Indian  route 
between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  valley.  After  both  Cincin- 
nati and  Cleveland  had  been  founded,  the  United  States  government 
buflt  Fort  Dearborn,  where  Chicago  now  stands,  to  protect  the  few 
traders  from  the  Indians  who  were  constantly  passing  to  and  from  the 
portage.  About  this  fort  clustered  many  white  men  who  came  to  trade. 
A  flourishing  city  grew  so  rapidly  that  it  now  has  about  two  million 
people.  It  stretches  twenty-five  miles  along  the  lake  front  and  extends 
several  miles  back  over  the  prairies. 

What  conditions  are  necessary  to  the  rapid  growth  and  prosperity  of 
a  city  ?  (p.  42.)  Chicago  is  in  the  center  of  the  greatest  grain-growing 
and  stock-raising  region  of  the  world,  and  the  forests  of  the  north  are 
easy  of  access.  There  is  an  ample  supply  of  coal  in  the  region  just  south 
of  the  city,  and  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  is  received  the  best  of 
iron  ore.  Its  commerce  may  be  carried  on  by  way  of  the  Mississippi  River 
or  the  Great  Lakes,  or  goods  may  be  transported  by  railroads  which  enter 
the  city  from  the  north,  west,  and  south,  for  Chicago  has  become  the 
greatest  railroad  center  in  the  world.  As  a  result  Chicago  is  not  only 
a  great  commercial  city  but  a  great  manufacturing  center.  Thousands 
of  cattle  and  hogs  are  killed  every  day  in  the  stock  yards,  and  loads  of 
beef,  pork,  and  other  manufactured  animal  products  are  sent  to  all  parts 
of  the  country.  Tanneries  take  the  hides  and  convert  them  into  leather, 
and  mills  change  the  timber  of  the  North  into  planed  lumber,  sashes, 
doors,  and  furniture,  railroad  cars,  and  agricultural  implements.  Cloth- 
ing, machinery,  books  and  other  printed  matter,  beer,  and  electrical 
goods  are  manufactured  extensively. 
Iron  ore  from  Lake  Superior  and  coal 
from  the  Ilhn  ois  coal  fields  can  be  brought 
to  Chicago  so  cheaply  that  it  has  become 
a  great  iron-  and  steel-making  center. 

The  University  of  Chicago,  though  one 
of  the  youngest,  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  United  States. 

The  business  quarter  borders  the  Chi- 
cago River,  which  flows  through  the  city 
and  forms  the  harbor,  while  the  resi- 
dence portion  surrounds  this  quarter  on 
the  north,  west,  and  south. 


and  meat-packing  establishments,  and  man- 
ufactures agricultural  implements  and  ma- 
chinery. Quincy  is  a  large  trade  center,  and 
has  extensive  flour  mills  and  iron  foundries. 
Springfield,  the  capital,  is  an  important  coal- 
mining center.  Mockford  manufactures  agri- 
cultural implements,  furniture,  and  knit  goods, 
and,  like  Elgin,  has  large  watch  works.  Joliet 
has  important  iron  and  steel  works  and  ex- 
tensive limeston^quarries.  

KENTUCKY.  "What  states  border  Kentucky  1  What 
three  rivers  form  much  of  its  boundary  1  In  what  drain- 
age basin  is  the  state  ?  Name  the  principal  rivers.  Lo- 
cate the  capital;  four  important  cities. 

The  most  valuable  ci'op  is  corn,  but  the  state 
produces  nearly  half  of  the  tobacco  raised  in 
the  whole  country.     Hemp  and  sorghum  are  also  charac- 
teristic crops.     Kentucky  raises  much  live  stock,  and  is 
noted  for  its  fine  horses.    It  has  iron  and  coal  mines  and 


Peoria,  on  an  expansion  of  the 
Illinois  River  called  Peoria  Lake, 
has  great  distilleries,  stock  yards, 


A  blue-grass  stock  farm,  Kentucky. 


Stock  yards  at  Chicago. 

fine  hard-wood  forests.    Mammoth  Cave,  in  the  central 
part  of  the  state,  is  one  of  the  largest  caverns  known. 

Louisville,  at  the  rapids  or  "  falls ff  of  the  Ohio,  is  one 
of  the  largest  tobacco  markets  in  the  world.    A  canal  for 
river  steamers  is  built  around  the  rapids.     The  manufac- 
ture of  tobacco,  distilling,  brew- 
ing, meat  packing,  and  tanning 
are  leading  industries. 

Covington  and  Newport  are  op- 
posite Cincinnati  and  have  simi- 
lar industries.  What  are  they? 
Lexington  is  the  center  of  the 
stock-raising  country  known  as 
the  Blue  Grass  region. 


MICHIGAN.  What  states  farther 
east  are  in  the  same  latitude  as  Michigan  ? 
By  which  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  it  bor- 
dered 1  Locate  the  Strait  of  Mackinac ; 
the  St.  Marys  River  and  Canal;  Lake 
St.  Clair ;  the  capital ;  four  other  cities. 


UNITED   STATES. 


75 


The  chief  occupation  in  the  southern  part  of  Michigan 
is  agriculture,  the  state  taking  a  high  rank  in  the  yield  of 
wheat,  dairy  products,  apples,  and  wool.  Lumbering  and 
mining  are  the  important  industries  in  the  central  and 
northern  parts.  The  pine  forests  of  Michigan  have  fur- 
nished much  of  the  lumber  used  for  building  in  the  At- 
lantic slope  of  the  United  States,  and  from  this  state  is 
also  obtained  about  one  third  of  the  iron  ore,  copper,  and 
salt  produced  in  the   country.     Through  the  St.  Marys 


Lock  in  the  "  Soo  "  Canal,  St.  Marys  River,  Mich. 

or  "  Soo  "  Canal  a  greater  amount  of  freight  is  carried  than 
through  any  other  canal  in  the  world. 

Detroit  has  water  communication  with  the  whole  St. 
Lawrence  valley,  and  this  has  made  it  a  great  commercial 
and  manufacturing  center.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
cars,  machinery,  tobacco,  drugs,  iron  and  steel,  and  lumber. 

Detroit  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  large  cities  in  the  Central  Lowland, 
having  been  founded  by  the  French  from  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  valley 
about  a  hundred  years  before  Cincinnati  was  settled.  For  more  than 
fifty  years  it  was  an  important  settlement  of  French  farmers  and  fur 
traders ;  then  for  many  years  during  the  Revolutionary  period  it  was  in 
the  possession  of  Great  Britain,  and  it  was  the  last  post  surrendered  to 
the  United  States  by  the  British  after  the  Revolution. 


Grand  Rapids  has  the  best  water  power 
and  is  especially  noted  for  the  manufacture 
Saginaw  and  Bay  City  are  centers  for 
the  lumber  trade  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  salt,  the  refuse  of  the  saw- 
mills being  used  as  fuel  in  evaporat- 
ing the  brine  from  the  salt  wells.  Ann 
Arbor  is  the  seat  of  the  famous  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan. 


WISCONSIN.  What  rivers  and  lakes  form 
part  of  the  boundary  of  Wisconsin  ?  What 
states  border  it  ?  /  What  is  the  general  altitude 
of  the  southeastern  half  of  the  state ;  of  the 
northwestern  half?  Name  three  tributaries  of 
the  Mississippi  River;  one  of  Lake  Michigan. 
Locate  the  chief  canal.  Why  is  this  canal  im- 
portant ?    Locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  cities. 

Oats,  barley,  and  tobacco  are  spe- 
cially important  crops.  The  northern 
part  of  the  state  is  covered  with  valu- 
able pine  forests,  and  contains  rich  de- 


in  the  state, 
of  furniture. 


City  Hall,  Milwaukee,  Wis 


Lumbering,  Michigan. 

posits  of  iron  ore.  An  important  water  route  between 
Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi  by  way  of  the  Fox 
and  Wisconsin  rivers  crosses  the  state. 

Milwaukee,  like  Detroit,  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  In- 
dian town,  whither  white  men  came  early  to  trade  for 
furs.  It  is  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  country,  being 
an  important  shipping  port  for  grain  and  lumber,  and 
having  extensive  breweries  and  foundries. 

La  Crosse  and  Oshkosh  are  centers  of  the  lumber  trade, 
with  a  large  flour-milling  industry.  Superior  ships  wheat, 
iron  ore,  and  lumber,  and  receives  great  quantities  of 
coal.  It  has  important  flour  and  lumber  mills,  shipyards, 
and  iron  foundries.  Racine  has  a  large  commerce  on  the 
lake,  and  manufactures  agricultural  machines. 

Supplemental  Work.  Tell  about  Daniel  Boone  in  Kentucky,  Hull's 
surrender  of  Detroit,  or  an  anecdote  of  some  other  state  of  this  section. 
Read  "  Stories  of  Ohio,"  by  Howells,  or  "  Stories  of  Indiana,"  by  Thomp- 
son. Describe  as  fully  as  Chicago  is  described  one  other  city  in  the  section. 
Read  or  recite  one  selection  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  29. 

States  of  the  Missouri  Basin.  The  seven  states  of 
the  Northern  Section  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  are 
sometimes  called  the  "West  Central 
States."  Which  of  them  lie  partly  or 
wholly  in  the  Missouri  basin  ?  Through 
these  states  trace  the  divide  between 
the  Oulf  slope  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Hudson  Bay  slopes.  Which  state 
is  in  all  three  of  these  slopes  ?  The 
northern  states  of  this  group  lie  partly 
in  the  Lake  plains;  the  rest  partly  or 
wholly  in  the  Prairie  plains. 

The  highland  portion  of  these  states, 
while  affording  excellent  pasturage  for 
cattle,  is  subject  to  droughts  which 
render  farming  uncertain  except  by 
the  aid  of  irrigation.  The  lowland 
portion,  however,  has  ample  rainfall 
and  great  fertility,  and  yields  nearly 
half  of  the  grain  and  meat  product  of 
the  country.    This  group  of  states  pro- 


76 


PARTS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


duces  nearly  all  the  flaxseed,  or  linseed,  raised  in  the 
United  States.    What  is  made  from  linseed  ? 

MINNESOTA.  Give  the  boundaries  of  Minnesota.  What  three  great 
river  systems  have  their  head  waters  in  Ahis  state  ?  Which  system  drains 
the  greater  part  of  the  state  ?    Locate  the  capital ;  three  other  cities. 

More  than  half  of  the  state  is  forest- clad, — with  pine  in 
the  north  and  with  oak  and  other  hard  woods  in  the  south- 
east,—  and  lumbering  is  an  extensive  industry.  Yet  Min- 
nesota is  the  greatest  wheat-producing  state  in  the  Union. 

The  flat  valley  of  the  Red  River  is  probably  the  most  perfect  -wheat- 
farming  region  in  the  world.  During  the  glacial  period  most  of  this  valley 
was  a  vast  lake,  upon  the 
bottom  of  which  sediment 
was  deposited  to  form  the 
fertile  soil  and  level  surface 
of  the  present  wheat  fields. 

The  iron  mines  in 
the  northeastern  part 
of  the  state  are  among 
the  richest  and  most 
extensive  in  the  world. 

Minneapolis  and  St. 

Paul,  though  separate  Harvesting 

cities  lying  side  by  side,  really  form  a  single  center  of 
population  and  one  of  the  ten  greatest  commercial  and 
manufacturing  centers  in  the  country. 

In  1819  the  United  States  built  Fort  Snelling  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Minnesota  River,  at  the  head  of  navigation  in  the  Mississippi,  and  a  few 
miles  below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  in  that  river.  No  town  could  be 
built  until  the  government  had  bought  the  region  from  the  Indians. 
When  this  was  done,  about  twenty  years  later,  a  settlement  was  made  at 
the  falls.  Emigrants  from  New  England  soon  settled  there  and  built 
sawmills  and  flour  mills,  and  thus  grew  the  greatest  flour-milling  and 


Mills  at  Minneapolis  below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

one  of  the  greatest  lumber-milling  cities  in  the  world.  It  was  well  called 
Minneapolis  (water-city),  since  its  location,  growth,  and  greatness  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  water  power  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

About  the  same  time  that  Minneapolis  was  settled,  Father  Gaultier 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  opposite  Fort  Snelling,  the  little  log 
chapel  of  St.  Paul,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  settlement  of  French  and 
Swiss  Canadians  that  sprang  up  around  it.  Later  came  many  Germans 
and  emigrants  from  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  and  thus  grew  the  great  com- 
mercial city  and  state  capital  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi. 


Duluth,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
forms,  with  the  city  of  Superior  opposite,  another  center 
of  population.  It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  great  docks  and 
elevators.  It  is  at  the  eastern  end  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pa- 
cific, and  ships  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  iron  ore,  and  copper. 
Winona  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber  and  wheat. 

IOWA.  What  rivers  form  part  of  its  boundary  ?  What  states  sur- 
round it?  Which  three  states  of  the  Northeastern  Section  are  within  the 
parallels  that  bound  Iowa  ?  How  does  Iowa  compare  in  area  with  these 
three  states  1     Locate  its  capital ;  four  other  cities. 

Iowa  produces  more  corn,  oats,  hay,  and  hogs  than  any 
other  state  in  the  Union,  and  it  is  among  the  first  in  the 

production  of  barley, 
potatoes,  cattle,  and 
dairy  products.  It 
yields  more  bitumin- 
ous coal  than  any 
other  state  west  of 
the   Mississippi. 

Des  Moines,  the  capi- 
tal,  is  an  important 
railroad  and  trade  cen- 
ter in  a  mining  and 
oats,  Iowa.  rich,  grazing  region. 

Dubuque  has  large  lumber  mills,  candage  factories,  and 
meat-packing  establishments.  Davenport,  with  Rock  Island 
and  Moline  opposite,  forms  an  important  center  of  trade 
and  manufacture.  It  is  a  great  grain  market,  and  manu- 
factures lumber  and  flour.  Sioux  City  has  large  meat- 
packing establishments,  and  is  an  important  trade  center. 
Burlington  has  many  lumber  mills. 

MISSOURI.  What  rivers  form  part  of  the  boundary  of  Missouri? 
What  states  surround  it  ?  What  mountains  are  in  the  state  ?  Locate 
its  capital;  its  four  chief  cities. 

On  the  rolling  prairies  of  the  northern  half  of  the  state 
the  raising  of  grain,  sorghum,  and  cattle  and  hogs  is  the 
chief  occupation,  while  in  the  forest-covered  plateau  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains  the  production  of  fruit  and  wool,  and 
lumbering,  are  important  industries.  Much  coal  is  mined 
in  the  northern,  central,  and  western  parts  of  the  state. 
The  greater  part  of  the  zinc  mined  in  the  country,  and 
much  lead,  come  from  a  small  region  including  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  state. 

St.  Louis  is  the  largest  city  in  the  Mississippi  basin,  and 
is  exceeded  in  population  by  but  three  cities  in  the  Union. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  commercial  centers  of  the  country, 
and  the  principal  collecting  and  distributing  point  for  the 
southwestern  quarter  of  the  United  States. 

St.  Louis  was  settled  by  French  fur  traders  from  New  Orleans, 
about  the  time  France  surrendered  the  eastern  half  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  to  Great  Britain.  The  site  was  selected  because  of  its  central  loca- 
tion and  admirable  facilities  for  river  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  Missis- 
sippi valley.  These  advantages  later  made  it  a  groat  railroad  center,  and 
are  the  reasons  for  its  growth  and  prosperity.  For  forty  years  nearly  all 
the  settlers  were  French  or  Spanish,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the 
United  States  bought  the  western  half  "of  the  Mississippi  basin  in  1803, 
that  ferries  across  the  river  were  established  at  St.  Louis,  and  English- 
speaking  emigrants  from  the  East  began  to  settle  there.    The  rapid 


UNITED   STATES. 


77 


Growing  corn,  Nebraska. 

building  of  railroads,  and  the  development  of  the  agricultural  resources 
of  the  surrounding  regions,  have  made  St.  Louis  a  great  center  for  the 
collection  and  manufacture  of  farm  products.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  malt  liquors,  tobacco,  flour,  and  meat  products. 

Kansas  City  is  an  important  receiving  and  distributing 
point  for  a  large  region  to  the  west.     It  forms  a  center  of 
population  with  Kansas  City,  Kansas.     St.  Joseph  is  noted 
for  the  making  of  men's  shirts  and  overalls,  and  for 
flour  milling.     Joplin  is  a  mining  center.     Springfield 
has  important  flour  mills  and  a  large  local  trade. 

KANSAS.  What  states  border  it  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
altitude  of  the  state  ?  Name  its  two  chief  rivers ;  its  capital ; 
three  other  cities. 

The  surface  of  Kansas  is  a  long,  gradual  slope,  the 
western  boundary  being  about  half  a  mile  higher 
than  the  eastern.     In  the  west,  cattle  herding  is  the 
chief  industry;  in  the  east,  farming.     Explain  this 
difference.     Kansas  ranks  among  the  first  four  or  five 
states  in  the  production  of  corn,  wheat,  cattle,  and 
hogs.     There    are    im- 
portant coal,  zinc,  and 
lead  mines  in  the  east- 
ern, and  salt  m  ines  in  the 
central  part  of  the  state. 

Kansas  City  is  contin- 
uous with  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  the  middle  of 
a  public  street  being  the 
dividing  line.  The  city 
ranks  next  to  Chicago 
in  slaughtering  and 
meat  packing,  which 
are  leading  industries. 

Topeka,  the  capital,  has  large  flour  mills.  Wichita  is  in 
a  wheat-growing  and  stock-raising  region.  Leavenworth  is 
in  the  coal-mining  region  of  northeastern  Kansas. 

NEBRASKA.  How  does  Nebraska  resemble  Kansas  in  surface ;  in 
drainage?     What   states  surround  it?    What  river  forms  its  eastern 


Steam  plow,  Kansas. 


boundary?    What  tributary  of  the  Missouri  drains  most  of  the  state? 
Locate  the  capital ;  one  other  large  city. 

Nebraska,  like  Kansas,  lies  on  the  long,  gradual  slope 
west  of  the  Missouri  River,  down  which  the  wide,  shallow 
tributaries  of  that  stream  flow  in  broad  but  not  deep  val- 
leys. The  rainfall  in  the  east  is  sufficient  for  very  success- 
ful farming.  The  west  is  drier,  but  affords  excellent  pastur- 
age for  vast  herds  of  cattle. 

Omaha,  with  Council  Bluffs  and  East  Omaha  in  Iowa, 
and  South  Omaha  in  Nebraska,  forms  a  single  center  of 
population,  commerce,  and  manufacture.  There  are  ex- 
tensive breweries,  works  for  smelting  and  refining  silver 
ore  from  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  very  large  meat- 
packing establishments. 

Lincoln,  the  capital,  is  a  trade  center,  doing  a  large  dis^ 
tributing  business  in  coal,  grain,  and  live  stock. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA.  What  states  border  it  ?  What  rivers  form  part 
of  its  boundary  ?  In  what  part  of  the  state  is  the  greatest  elevation  of 
land?  What  river  drains  nearly  the  whole  state?  Compare  the  area 
of  South  Dakota  with  that  of  New  England.  Locate  the  capital  and 
chief  cities. 

The  surface  of  South  Dakota  is  somewhat  less  smooth 
than  that  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  In  the  east  are  hills 
of  glacial  drift,  and  in  the  west  there  is  a  flat  dome-shaped 
upheaval  of  rock,  which  has  been  gradually  worn  down 

into  a  cluster  of  mountain 
ridges  called  the  Black 
Hills.  Here  gold  and  sil- 
ver are  mined  and  a  low 
grade  of  tin  ore  is  found. 
In  the  east  wheat  and 
flaxseed  are  the  most  im- 
portant crops. 

Sioux  Fallsh&s  fine  water 
power,  and  is  the  railroad 
center  of  the  state.  Dead- 
wood  is  the  mining  center 
in  the  Black  Hills  region. 

NORTH  DAKOTA.  What 
states  and  country  bound  North 
Dakota  ?  What  river  boundary 
has  it  ?  What  three  states  does 
it  resemble  in  surface  ?    In  what 

two  drainage  slopes  does  North  Dakota  he  ?    Trace  the  divide  between 

them.     Locate  the  capital  and  chief  cities. 

Much  of  North  Dakota  east  of  the  Missouri  is  covered 
with  glacial  drift.  How  was  the  Red  River  valley  formed  ? 
Some  of  the  wheat  farms  in  this  valley  are  thousands  of 
acres  in  extent.  Grazing  and  stock  raising  are  impor- 
tant industries. 

Fargo  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Red  River, 
and  is  the  center  of  several  railroad  lines.  Grand  Forks  is 
in  the  rich  wheat  region. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  chapter  21  of  McMaster's  "  School  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,"  and  tell  some  anecdote  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  this  section.  Read  "  Stories  of  Missouri,"  by  Musick.  Describe 
as  fully  as  St.  Louis  is  described  one  other  city  in  the  section.  Read  or 
recite  one  selection  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  29. 


Union  railroad  station,  St.  Louis. 


78 


FARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


_  Delta  of  the 
"Mississippi  River 


SOUTHERN  SECTION 

Scale  133  miles  to  one  inch,  same  as  the  maps  of  Northern  Section,  Plateau  Sec 
Paciiic  Section,  British  Isles,  Central  Europe,  and  Southwestern  Europe 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

50  100  150  200  260  300 

The  highlands  above  2000  feet  are  shown  in  the  buff  tints, 
the  lowlands  in  the  green  tints,  and  the  submerged  part  of 
the  continental  plateau  tn  the  light  blue  tint. 


Longitude 


THE  SOUTHERN   SECTION. 

Which  part  of  this  section  is  highland  ?  Which  part  is  lowland  ? 
Which  states  contain  part  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ?  Which  states 
he  partly  or  wholly  in  the  Atlantic  plain  ?  Which  lie  partly  or  wholly  in 
the  Gulf  plain  ?  Which  divisions  are  broken  by  the  Ozark  Mountains  ? 
Which  he  partly  in  the 'Great  Plains?  Which  quarter  of  the  United 
States  embraces  most  of  the  Southern  Section  ?  What  kind  of  sum- 
mers and  winters  prevail  in  this  section  ?  (map,  p.  54.) 

Long,  hot  summers  and  short,  temperate  winters  pre- 
vail over  nearly  the  whole  of  this  section.  Although 
snow  sometimes  falls  in  all  the  states,  it  soon  melts. 
Over  nearly  the  whole  section  the  rainfall  is  abundant  for 
purposes  of  farming.  It  is  only  in  the  extreme  west  that 
serious  droughts  occur. 

The  surface  for  a  hundred  miles  or  more  from  the  coast 


is  quite  flat,  then  occur  the  low  Piedmont  hills  in  the  east, 
and  the  gently  rolling  plains  in  the  west.  The  surface 
is  rugged  only  near  the  Appalachian  and  Ozark  ridges 
and  near  the  mountains  in  the  extreme  west.  The  soil, 
though  sandy  toward  the  coast,  is  generally  very  fertile. 
Agriculture  is  the  great  industry,  and  cotton  is  by  far 
the  most  important  crop  (map,  p.  58).  More  than  one 
fourth  of  the  farm  land  is  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
this  fiber,  and  this  section  is  the  world's  greatest  cotton- 
producing  region. 

Most  of  the  ordinary  or  "  upland "  cotton  is  grown  in  a  broad  belt 
lying  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  and  stretching  from  Texas 
to  North  Carolina,  with  extensions  up  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  great  tributaries.  The  finest  cotton,  however, —  that  with  the  longest 
and  toughest  fiber, —  comes  from  the  sea  islands  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 


UNITED  STATES. 


79 


After  cotton,  corn  is  the  most  extensive  crop  of  the 
section,  particularly  in  the  northern  part,  where  wheat 
and  tobacco  are  also  grown,  while  from  the  southern 
part  come  all  rice  and  cane  sugar  produced  in  this  country, 
and  many  of  the  oranges.  This  section  also  produces  most 
of  the  peaches  and  sweet  potatoes  raised  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  northern  part,  where  grain  is  grown, 
many  hogs  and  fine  horses  are  raised,  and  in  the  .west- 
ern part,  many  cattle  and  sheep. 

What  part  of  this  section  is  wooded?  (map,  p.  59.) 
Why  are  forests  not  found  in  the  western  part  ?  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  section,  especially  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Appalachian  and  Ozark  Mountains,  are  our  most  ex- 
tensive forests  of  oak,  hickory,  ash,  poplar,  and  cotton- 
wood.    The  forests  of  the  coast  plain  are  composed  chiefly 


of  yellow  or  southern  pine,  which  is  a  much  harder 
wood  than  the  white  pine  of  the  North.  These  forests 
not  only  yield  valuable  building  lumber,  but  from  the 
abundant  pine  sap  are  made  great  quantities  of  naval 
stores  —  pitch,  rosin,  and  turpentine. 

In  what  parts  of  this  section  are  there  coal  fields  ? 
(map,  p.  59.)  Coal  mines  are  worked  in  all  these 
fields,  '  but  the  most  extensive  are  in  the  Appalachian 
and  Ozark  regions.  Near  the  southern  end  of  the  Ap- 
palachians, so  much  iron  ore  is  obtained  that  it  has 
become  the  greatest  iron-mining  region  in  the  country, 
after  the  Lake  Superior  region. 

From  the  city  map,  on  p.  59,  how  do  you  think 
this  section  compares  with  the  northeastern  quarter  of 
the  country  as  a  manufacturing  region? 

Until  about  forty  years  ago  nearly  all  the  labor  in  the  Southern 
Section  was  done  by  negro  slaves,  who  could  plant  and  gather  cotton 
and  do  farm  work,  but  few  of  them  were  able  to  manage  machinery ; 
so  very  little  manufacturing  was  then  done  in  the  South,  nearly  all 
manufactured  goods  used  there,  such  as  cloth,  furniture,  tools,  and 
implements,  being  brought  from  abroad  or  the  North  in  exchange  for 
raw  cotton.  Since  the  Civil  War  the  labor  conditions  are  greatly 
changed.  Many  white  people  have  turned  their  attention  to  manu- 
facturing and  mining,  and  the  negroes,  who  have  been  freed,  are  being 
employed  as  laborers  in  factories  and  shops  as  well  as  on  the  farms. 

Cotton  cloth  is  made  at  many  places,  especially  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  section,  and  this  branch  of  manufac- 
ture is  rapidly  increasing.  Cottonseed  oil  is  extensively 
made  in  the  central  and  west  central  parts,  and  sugar  in 
the  Mississippi  delta.  Much  iron  and  steel  are  manufac- 
tured in  the  iron-mining  region,  and  there  are  many 
sawmills  in  the  forest  regions,  and  turpentine  distilleries 
in  the  great  pineries  of  the  Southeast. 

The  coast  of  nearly  the  whole  section  is  fringed  with 
barrier  beaches,  and  many  of  the  inlets  between  them 
have  narrow,  crooked  channels,  often  obstructed  by  shift- 
ing bars.  Hence  foreign  commerce  is  not  so  great  as  on 
our  northeastern  coast,  though  much  cotton  and  some 
coal  and  lumber  are  exported,  and  there  is  an  active 
coasting  trade  in  small  vessels.  Turn  to  the  railroad 
map  (p.  60),  and  notice  that  the  railroads  of  the  section 
are  separated  by  the  Appalachian  Mountains  into  two 
groups.  Where  is  the  eastern  group  ?  The  other  group 
connects  the  Southwest  with  the  northern  part  of  the 
Mississippi  valley  on  either  side  of  the  Ozark  Mountains. 

These  two  groups  are  connected  by  several  lines  across  the  Appala- 
chians and  around  their  southern  end;  but  each  group  indicates  the 
route  taken  by  trade  in  its  region :  the  Atlantic  plain  trading  mostly 
with  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country,  but  the  Southwest  and  lower 
Mississippi  valley  mostly  with  the  great  central  prairie  region. 

Turn  to  the  population  map  (p.  57),  and  tell  how  the 
density  of  population  in  this  section  compares  with  that 
in  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the  country.  The  Southern 
Section  contains  about  one  fourth  of  the  people  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  very  few  foreigners ;  but  about 
one  third  of  the  people  are  negroes,  and  in  several  of  the 
states  the  negroes  are  more  numerous  than  the  whites. 


80 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  What  states  border  North  Carolina?  To 
what  two  slopes  does  its  drainage  belong?  Name  the  principal  rivers. 
Name  two  mountain  ranges  ;  a  mountain  peak.  What  have  you  learned 
about  this  peak  ?  Describe  the  coast,  and  tell  the  manner  of  its  forma- 
tion (p.  49).  Locate  the  chief  sounds;  three  capes.  What  part  of  the 
state  is  swampy f    Locate  the  capital;  the  other  chief  cities. 

Much  of  the  Tidewater  region  of  the  state  is  swampy  or 
covered  with  open  pine  forests.  Rice,  peanuts,  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  early  vegetables  are  important  crops  in  the  light 
and  sandy  soils  of  this  region.  In  the  Piedmont  region 
cotton,  tobacco,  corn,  and  wheat  are  raised,  and  the  for- 
est-covered mountains  of  the  west  yield  much  valuable 
hard-wood  lumber. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  is  increasing  rapidly,  the 
mills  already  consuming  more  cotton  than  is  raised  in  the 
state.  Other  important  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco,  lumber  milling,  and  the  distilling  of  rosin  and 
turpentine. 

Wilmington,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  state,  is  an 
important  cotton  market,  and  ships  great  quantities  of 
lumber  and  naval  stores.  Baleigh,  on  the  Fall  line,  has 
important  cotton  mills  and  tobacco  factories.  Charlotte 
is  the  great  cotton-manufacturing  center  of  the  state. 
Asheville,  the  commercial  center  of  the  western  part,  is 
a  famous  health  resort.  Greensboro  and  Winston  have 
large  tobacco  factories. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  Between  what  two  states  is  South  Carolina  ? 
What  river  separates  it  from  Georgia?  Describe  the  surface.  Which 
are  its  two  largest  rivers  ?    Locate  the  capital ;  the  other  chief  cities. 

More  than  one  third  of  the  cultivated  land  is  devoted  to 
cotton.  The  swampy  Tidewater  region  yields  much  rice, 
the  state  ranking  second  in  the  Union  in  this  product. 
Much  attention  is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  early  fruit 
and  vegetables  for  the  Northern  markets.  From  the  pine 
forests  lumber  and  naval  stores  are  obtained.  A  great 
deal  of  phosphate  rock  is  dug  in  the  Tidewater  region, 
and  shipped  for  use  as  a  fertilizer.  Cotton  weaving, 
lumber  milling,  turpentine  distilling,  rice  cleaning,  and 
fertilizer  making  are  the  chief  manufacturing  industries. 

Charleston  has  long  been  one  of  the  leading  cities  of 


Rice  field,  South  Carolina. 


the  South.  It  owes  its  prosperity  largely  to  its  fine  har- 
bor. It  was  at  Fort  Sumter  in  this  harbor  that  the  first 
engagement  of  the  Civil  War  took  place.  Much  cotton, 
rice,  lumber,  and  fertilizers  are  shipped  from  this  port. 
Columbia,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Fall  line.  Its  fine  wa- 
ter power  is  used  by  several  large  cotton  factories. 
Greenville  and  Spartanburg  manufacture  cotton  cloth. 

GEORGIA.  What  states  border  Georgia?  What  rivers  form  part 
of  the  boundary  ?  What  are  the  chief  rivers  of  Georgia  draining  the 
Atlantic  slope;  the  Gulf  slope?  What  part  of  the  state  is  drained 
by  the  Mississippi  system?  Trace  the  divides  of  these  three  slopes. 
Locate  Okeflnokee  Swamp  ;  the  capital ;  the  other  chief  cities. 

Georgia  is  one  of  the  leading  cotton-growing  states,  and 
exceeds  all  other  states  in  the  yield  of  peaches.  The 
crops  of  sweet  potatoes,  rice,  and  sugar  are  also  large. 
The  pine  forests  yield  much  lumber,  and  more  turpentine 


Turpentine  distillery,  southern  Georgia. 

and  rosin  than  any  other  region  in  the  world.  There  are 
valuable  quarries  of  marble  and  granite  in  the  north, 
Georgia  ranking  as  second  state  in  the  production  of 
marble.  The  fine  water  powers  along  the  Fall  line,  and 
the  coal  and  iron  mines  in  the  north,  give  Georgia  a  high 
manufacturing  rank  among  the  Southern  states.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cotton,  lumber,  and  naval  stores. 

Atlanta,  the  capital,  was  destroyed  during  the  Civil 
War,  but  has  grown  rapidly  since,  and  is  one  of  the  great- 
est commercial  cities  and  railroad  centers  of  the  South. 
It  owes  its  prosperity  largely  to  its  location  near  the 
southern  end  of  the  massive  Blue  Ridge,  and  thus  where 
communication  is  easy  with  the  North  and  with  both  the 
eastern  and  western  groups  of  Southern  railroads.  It  has 
cotton  mills  and  many  other  manufactories. 

Savannah  was  the  first  place  settled  in  the  state.  It 
was  taken  by  the  British  during  the  Revolution  and  was 
the  scene  of  fighting  during  the  Civil  War.  It  is  eigh- 
teen miles  from  the  ocean,  but  has  one  of  the  deepest 
harbors  on  the  Southern  coast.  The  first  steamship  to 
cross  the  Atlantic  sailed  from  this  port.  Savannah  ships 
much  cotton,  rice,  and  lumber,  and  more  naval  stores 
than  any  other  port  in  the  world. 

Augusta  and  Columbus,  on  the  Fall  line,  have  many 
cotton  mills.  Macon,  also  on  the  Fall  line,  manufactures 
cotton  goods  and  lumber. 


UNITED  STATES 


81 


FLORIDA.     What  states  border  on  Florida  ?    What  waters  1    Name 
its  chief  bays ;   capes ;   rivers.     Trace  the  main  divide.    Which  slope 
embraces  the  greater  part  of  the  state  ?    Locate  the  capital ; 
the  four  chief  cities. 

The    surface    of   Florida   is  everywhere 
low  and  flat,  so  that  the  streams  are  slug- 
gish, and  many  of  them  have  numerous 
lakelike  expansions.    The  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula  has  been  formed  by 
additions  to  the   mainland  of  succes- 
sive lines  of  coral  reefs,  or  keys,  that 
grew   up    in    the   warm,  shallow  water 
along  the  coast  (p.  21).     This  part  of 
the  state  is  now  mostly  a  great  marsh 
called   "  The  Everglades.1' 

The  raising  of  early  vegetables  and 
fruits,  especially  oranges;  lumbering  in 
the   north;    and   the    making  of    cigars 
from   Cuban  tobacco,   are   the   chief   in- 
dustries.   The  mild  climate  has  made  the 
state  a  favorite  winter  resort  for  invalids 

Jacksonville,  the  business  center  of  the  state,  exports 
lumber  and  oranges,  and  is  a  great  winter  resort.  Key 
West,  the  most  southerly  city  in  the  country,  manufac- 
tures many  cigars  and  exports  sponges.  Pensacola  is  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  shipping  lumber.  Tampa  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  southern  Florida,  and  manufactures 
cigars.  St.  Augustine  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United 
States,  and  contains  fine  hotels  for  winter  guests. 

ALABAMA.  What  states  border  Alabama?  What  water  bound- 
aries has  it?  Trace  the  main  divide  of  the  state.  What  rivers  drain 
most  of  the  state  south  of  the  divide  ?  Into  what  bay  do  they  both 
flow  1  What  river  drains  the  northern  part  of  the  state  ?  Into  what 
does  it  flow  ?    Locate  the  capital ;  the  other  chief  cities. 

Besides  the  great  agricultural  industry,  which  produces 
large  crops  of  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  and  corn,  the  indus- 
try of  mining  is  very  important.    More  coal  is  mined  in 


are  found  so  close  together  in  Alabama  that  iron  can  be 
very  cheaply  made,  and  the  state  has  become  the  third 
center  in  the  Union  for  its  manufacture.     Lumber 
milling  is  also  an  important  industry. 

Mobile,  at  the  head  of  Mobile  Bay,  is  the 
oldest  large  city  in  the  section.  It  is  a  great 
cotton-shipping  port,  and  has  large  lumber 
mills.    Birmingham  and  Anniston  are  in 
the    mineral    region,  and    have    many 
iron  furnaces  and  rolling  mills.    Mont- 
gomery,  the   capital,  is  an   important 
trade  center. 

MISSISSIPPI.     What  states  border  Missis- 

•fe       sippi?    What  water  boundaries  has  it?    What 

river  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  is  really  a 

large  bayou  of  the  Mississippi  ?    By  what  river  is 

the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the  state  drained  ? 

Locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  cities. 


es, 


Florida. 


Rolling  mills  near  Birmingham,  Ala. 

northern  Alabama  than  in  any  other  Southern  state,  and 
in  the  production  of  iron  ore  this  state  ranks  next  after 
Michigan  and  Minnesota.    Iron  ore,  coal,  and  limestone 


Picking  cotton,  Mississippi. 

The  broad  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi  includes  all  the 
part  of  the  state  between  that  river  and  the  Yazoo,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the  Union.  Upon  these 
alluvial  lands  is  grown  much  of  the  great  cotton  crop. 
A  larger  proportion  of  the  land  is  planted  with  cotton  in 
Mississippi  than  with  all  other  crops  combined.  Lumber- 
ing is  also  an  important  industry. 

Vicksburg  is  a  cotton  market  and  the  largest  city  of 
the  state.  Meridian  is  the  commercial  center  of  eastern 
Mississippi.    Natchez  ships  much  cotton. 

TENNESSEE.  What  states  border  Tennessee  ?  What  is  its  -western 
boundary  ;  its  eastern  ?  What  plateau  crosses  the  state  ?  This  is  one 
of  the  Alleghany  plateaus.  What  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  cross  the 
state  ?  Compare  the  slopes  of  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the  state 
as  indicated  by  these  rivers.    Locate  the  capital ;  the  other  chief  cities. 

Tennessee  is  divided  into  three  regions  by  the  Tennes- 
see River  and  the  Cumberland  plateau.  Cotton  growing  is 
confined  chiefly  to  the  western  region.  Much  tobacco, 
fruit,  corn,  and  stock  are  raised  in  middle  Tennessee,  and 
more  wheat  than  in  any  other  Southern  state.    East  of 


82 


PARTS   OP   THE   EARTH. 


the  plateau  lumbering  and  the  mining  of  coal  and  iron  are 
important  industries.  Much  beautiful  variegated  marble 
is  also  quarried  in  east  Tennessee. 

Tennessee  is  the  foremost  Southern  state  in  manufactur- 
ing —  the  grinding  of  flour,  lumber  milling,  the  making  of 


Baling  cotton,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

iron  and  steel,  and  the  manufacture  of  cottonseed  oil  be- 
ing the  leading  branches  of  this  industry. 

Nashville,  the  capital,  was  founded  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  at  a  salt  "lick"  or  spring,  where  game  was 
very  plentiful,  as  buffaloes,  deer,  and  other  wild  animals 
came  to  the  place  to  lick  the  salt-incrusted  rocks  surround- 
ing the  spring.  It  soon  became  an  important  trading 
point  because  of  its  river  route  to  the  lower  Mississippi 
and  the  upper  Ohio,  and,  with  the  building  of  railroads, 
it  became  one  of  the  important  commercial  cities  south 
of  the  Ohio  River. 

Memphis  was  settled  about  eighty  years  ago  on  the  high 
bluff  overlooking  the  Mississippi  River,  from  which  De 
Soto  discovered  the  river  more  than  350  years  ago.  The 
bluff  is  the  important  feature  of  the  location,  for  south  of 
this  point  for  several  hundred  miles  the  river  occupies  the 
central  part  of  its  flood  plain,  and  both  banks  are  liable  to 
overflow.  Because  of  its  safe  landing,  Memphis  rapidly 
grew  to  be  an  important  river  port,  and  since  the  building 
of  a  great  railroad  bridge  here  across  the  mighty  river  it 
has  become  a  noted  railroad  center.  It  has  a  large  trade  in 
cotton,  and  many  machine  shops,  and  it  is  the  great  manu- 
facturing center  for  cottonseed  oil. 

Knoxville  is  the  trade  center  for  eastern  Tennessee, 
and  has  foundries,  rolling  mills,  and  lumber  mills.  Chat- 
tanooga is  in  the  coal-  and  iron-mining  region,  and  manu- 
factures iron  and  steel.  It  is  near  the  head  of  the  narrow 
gorge  which  the  Tennessee  River  has  cut  through  the  Cum- 
berland plateau,  and  which  is  utilized  by  several  railroads; 
hence  the  city  has  become  an  important  railroad  center. 

ARKANSAS.  What  states  border  Arkansas  ?  What  rivers  form 
part  of.  its  boundaries  t    What  great  tributary  of  the  Mississippi  flows 


through  it?     Name  the  mountains.     In  what  direction  does  the  state 
slope  f     Locate  the  capital  and  other  chief  cities. 

Nearly  one  half  of  the  state  is  occupied  by  the  broad 
flood  plains  of  the  Mississippi  and  Arkansas  rivers,  whose 
fertile  soil  produces  great  crops  of  cotton,  corn,  and 
peaches.  From  the  forest-covered  uplands  valuable  hard- 
wood timber  is  obtained,  and  excellent  cottonwood  and 
cypress  from  the  fertile  lower  land.  Coal  and  fine  sand- 
stone for  whetstones  are  obtained  from  the  rock  folds 
in  the  western  part  of  the  state.  South  of  the  Ozark 
ridges,  in  the  region  of  folded  rocks,  occurs  a  group  of 
very  celebrated  hot  springs,  about  which  a  town  of  hotels 
and  hospitals  has  grown  up  to  accommodate  the  invalids 
who  come  to  bathe  in  the  hot  water. 

Little  Rock,  the  capital,  has  manufactures  of  cottonseed 
oil  and  lumber.  Fort  Smith  is  the  center  of  the  coal  re- 
gion. Pine  Bluff,  on  the  bluff  forming  the  western  margin 
of  the  great  Mississippi  flood  plain,  is  a  shipping  point  for 
cotton  and  lumber. 

LOUISIANA.  What  states  border  on  Louisiana  ¥  What  waters  ?  In 
what  general  direction  does  its  surface  slope  ¥  What  is  the  largest 
tributary  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  state?  What  bayou  flows  to  the 
Gulf  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  ¥  Because  of  this  bayou  the 
mouth  of  the  Red  River  is  sometimes  said  to  be  the  head  of  the  Missis- 
sippi delta.  What  lake  or  arm  of  the  Gulf  is  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  state  1    Locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  city ;  one  other  city. 

Fully  half  of  the  state  lies  in  the  flood  plains  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Red  rivers.  The  levees  along  these  streams 
are  anxiously  watched  when  the  rivers  are  rising.  Why  ? 
The  lowlands  are  traversed  by  many  bayous,  and  contain 
great  canebrakes  and  swampy  forests.  But  in  them  are 
raised  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar  cane  grown  in 
the  United  States,  and  more  than  half  of  the  rice,  while 
cotton  growing  is  confined  largely  to  the  uplands.    The 


Cutting  sugar  cane,  Louisiana. 

chief  manufacturing  industries  are  sugar  refining,  lumber  ^ 
milling,  and  rice  cleaning. 

New  Orleans,  the  largest  city  of  the  South,  and  one  of 
the  twelve  greatest  cities  of  the  Union,  lies  on  both  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  about  one  hundred  miles  from 
its  mouth.     Ocean  vessels  ascend  the  river  to  the  city  to 


UNITED   STATES. 


83 


receive  cargoes  of  freight  that  come  down  the  river  from 
all  parts  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

It  is  owing  to  these  unrivaled  natural  advantages  for  commerce  that 
New  Orleans  has  become  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  country  and  the 
greatest  cotton-shipping  point  in  the  world,  in  spite  of  certain  disadvan- 
tages of  its  location. 

Most  of  the  city  lies  between  the  river  and  Lake  Pontchartrain.  How 
is  it  protected  from  high  water  in  the  river  ?  Much  of  it  is  so  low  that 
when  strong  east  winds  prevail  it  would  be  flooded  by  the  lake  but  for 
levees  built  along  its  shores.  Thus  the  city  is  completely  surrounded  by 
levees,  over  which  the  drainage  and  sewage  is  pumped  by  steam  into 
Lake  Pontchartrain. 

The  city  and  the  whole  state  were  settled  by  the  French  about  sixty 
years  before  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  many  descendants  of  these 
settlers  still  live  there  and  speak  the  French  language.  The  city  was 
located  where  vessels  could  reach  it  from  the  Gulf,  either  by  the  river  or 
by  the  lake.  Sailing  vessels  still  use  the  lake  approach  and  by  canals 
reach  the  heart  of  the  city,  but  steamers  generally  use  the  river,  espe- 
cially since  the  deepening  of  one  of  the  river  mouths  by  means  of  ar- 
tificial banks  called  jetties.  These  jetties  were  built  out  across  the  sand 
bar  from  the  natural  mouth  into  the  deep  water  of  the  Gulf.  The  cur- 
rent of  the  river  quickly  wore  away  the  bar  between  the  jetties,  so  that 
now  the  largest  steamers  can  enter  the  river. 

Shreveport  is  a  cotton  market.  Baton  Rouge,  the  capital, 
is  built  on  a  bluff  above  the  river. 


Steamboat  landing,  New  Orleans. 

TEXAS.  By  what  is  Texas  bordered  ?  What  part  of  the  state  con- 
tains mountains?  What  part  is  lowland?  What  part  is  highland? 
In  what  general  direction  does  the  state  slope  ?  Trace  through  the  state 
the  divide  of  the  Mississippi  basin.  Mention  three  rivers  south  of  this 
divide.  How  does  Texas  rank  among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  area  ? 
(map,  p.  56.)  Compare  this  area  with  that  of  all  New  England.  Describe 
the  coast.  Name  the  bays.  Locate  the  capital ;  two  cities  in  the  north ; 
a  seaport ;  three  other  cities. 

The  warm,  moist  lowlands  have  valuable*  forests  and  oil 
wells,  and  produce  sugar  cane  and  more  cotton  than  any 
other  state.  The  higher,  cooler,  and  drier  central  prairie 
region  produces  large  crops  of  wheat,  more  corn  and  hogs 
than  any  other  Southern  .state,  and  much  fruit ;  while  the 
pastures  of  this  region  and  of  the  Great  Plains  farther 
west  have  made  this  the  greatest  cattle-raising,  and  one  of 
the  important  wool-growing,  states  in  the  Union.  It  is  one 
of  the  great  manufacturing  states  of  the  South,  lumber 
milling,  the  grinding  of  flour,  and  the  making  of  cotton- 


Alamo  Plaza,  San  Antonio,  Texas. 

seed  oil  being  the  leading  industries.  Texas  was  part  of 
Mexico  until  shortly  before  it  was  admitted  into  the 
Union,  and  many  of  its  people  are  of  Spanish  descent. 

Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  are  the  railroad  and  commercial 
centers  of  northern  Texas.  San  Antonio  was  settled  by 
Spanish  Mexicans  and  still  contains  many  of  their  de- 
scendants. Galveston,  the  chief  seaport,  is  one  of  the  great 
cotton-shipping  points  of  the  country.  Austin,  the  capi- 
tal, Houston,  and  Waco  are  important  trade  centers. 

OKLAHOMA.  What  divisions  surround  Oklahoma?  What  river 
crosses  Oklahoma  and  receives  most  of  its  drainage  ?  Locate  the 
capital ;  one  other  city. 

Oklahoma  was  formed  from  Indian  Territory,  after  the 
Federal  government  had  bought  the  lands  from  the  Indian 
tribes.  When  these  lands  were  thrown  open  to  public  set- 
tlement thousands  of  white  families  rushed  in,  procured 
land,  and  built  homes.  Thus  Oklahoma  was  peopled  in  a 
few  days'  time.  "Wheat,  corn,  and  cotton  are  grown  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Oklahoma,  but  in  the  western  part  cattle 
raising  is  the  chief  industry.  Guthrie,  the  capital,  and 
Oklahoma  are  important  trade  centers. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY.  What  divisions  of  the  Union  border  Indian 
Territory  ?  What  river  forms  its  southern  boundary  ?  What  great  river 
is  in  the  north  ? 

This  territory  has  been  set  apart  by  the  Federal  government  for  the 
home  of  Indian  tribes  who  have  given  up  their  homes  in  other  parts  of 
the  Union.  About  one  fourth  of  the  Indians  in  the  country  now  live  in 
the  territory.  With  them  live  many  whites  and  negroes  who  have 
been  adopted  by  the  Indians.  The  territory  has  no  regular  territorial 
government,  but  each  Indian  tribe  governs  itself  under  the  supervision 
of  Federal  officers.  The  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and 
Seminoles  have  organized  governments  and  are  called  nations.  They 
are  partly  civilized,  the  Cherokees  having  schools  and  a  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  their  language.  Ardmore,  in  the  Chickasaw  nation,  and  Mus- 
cogee, in  the  Creek  nation,  are  the  largest  towns. 

Supplemental  Work.  Tell  one  anecdote  of  Revolutionary  times  in 
the  South.  Read  "  Stories  of  Georgia,"  by  Joel  Chandler  Harris ;  "  The 
Story  of  Louisiana,"  by  Maurice  Thompson ;  "  Palmetto  Leaves,"  by 
Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe ;  "  Dixie,"  by  Julian  Ralph ;  or  "  Re- 
member the  Alamo,"  by  Amelia  E.  Barr.  Read  or  recite  one  selection 
from  Vol.  28  of  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places."  Describe  as  fully  as 
New  Orleans  is  described  one  other  city  or  place  in  this  section.  Write 
next  day  what  you  can  remember  of  the  description  given  by  one  of 
your  schoolmates. 


UNITED  STATES. 


85 


THE  PLATEAU  SECTION. 

Which  states  of  this  section  are.  crossed  or  bordered  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains?  Which  states  lie  partly  in  the  Great  Plains?  Which 
states  he  partly  in  the  Columbia  plateaus  ?  Which  he  partly  in  the  Colo- 
rado plateaus  1  Which  he  partly  in  the  Great  Basin  ?  Which  half  of  the 
Union  embraces  this  section  f  How  does  the  rainf all  in  this  section  com- 
pare with  that  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  Union  ?  (map,  p.  54.) 

This  is  the  highland  section  of  our  country.  The  gen- 
eral surface  is  about  a  mile  high,  but  the  mountain  ranges 
and  many  of  the  plateaus  are  much  higher.  Practically 
the  only  lowland  in  the  section  is  in  the  extreme  southwest. 


Smelter  near  Anaconda,  Mont. 

Through  the  central  part  of  the  section  the 
great  Rocky  Mountain  chain  extends  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  its  numerous  irregular 
ranges  making  this  the  roughest  and  most 
rugged  part  of  the  United  States.  Except  in 
the  extreme  north  and  in  the  extreme  south, 
the  lowest  passes  across  this  chain  have  an  ele- 
vation greater  than  the  highest  points  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  while  very  many  of 
the  peaks  reach  heights  of  between  two  and 
three  miles,  where  it  is  too  cold  for  any  vege- 
tation to  grow. 

East  of  the  mountains  the  section  embraces 
a  wide  belt  of  the  smooth  but  elevated  surface  of  the  Great  Plains.  In 
the  great  plateau  region  west  of  the  mountains  the  surface  is  much 
broken  by  the  deep  canyons  of  the  Colorado  and  Snake  river  systems ; 
by  lines  of  cliffs  many  miles  in  length;  and  by  numerous  detached 
mountain  ranges  formed  by  tilted  blocks  (p.  52).  Between  these  ranges, 
cliffs,  and  canyons,  however,  the  plateaus  are  smooth  and  nearly  level. 

On  the  highland  the  summer  days  are  usually  hot,  but 
because  of  the  elevation  the  nights  are  cool.  The  winters 
in  the  north  are  long  and  very  cold,  but  the  lowland  in 
the  south  is  one  of  the  hottest  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  winters  there  are  mild  and  almost  snowless,  and  in 
summer  the  temperature  is  sometimes  120°. 

Only  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  on  the  highest  plateaus 
is  there  enough  rainfall  to  support  forest  growth.  Else- 
where the  section  is  so  dry  that  irrigation  is  necessary  for 
successful  farming.  In  the  Great  Basin  and  southward 
the  lower  lands  are  true  deserts.  Much  of  the  section, 
however,  is  covered  with  coarse  bunch  grass,  which  forms 
good  pasturage. 

By  far  the  most  important  industry  is  the  mining  of 
the  metals  silver,  gold,  copper,  and  lead.    This  section 


is  the  greatest  silver-mining  region  of  the  world,  and  it 
produces  more  than  half  of  the  gold,  copper,  and  lead 
mined  in  the  United  States.  Enough  coal  to  supply  the 
wants  of  the  section  is  mined  from  numerous  small  coal 
fields  (map,  p.  59). 

The  metal-bearing  rock  or  ore  is  usually  found  as  veins  filling  old 
cracks  or  fissures  in  the  upheaved  rocks  of  the  mountains.  Very  deep 
mines  are  sunk  in  following  the  vein  from  which  the  ore  is  obtained. 
Often  several  different  metals,  particularly  silver  and  copper  or  silver 
and  lead,  are  found  associated  in  the  same  vein.  Though  this  is  one 
of  the  great  lead-producing  regions  of  the  world,  the  lead  is  obtained 
from  silver  ore. 

After  mining,  herding  is  the  most  important  industry. 
Vast  herds  of  cattle  find  pasturage  on  the  Great  Plains, 
and  thousands  are  annually  shipped  east  to  be  converted 
into  beef.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  also  pasture  both  on  the 
Great  Plains  and  on  the  high  plateaus  west  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains.  About  one  fifth  of  the  wool  produced  in  the 
Union  comes  from  this  section. 

Some  grain,  vegetables,  and  fruit  are  produced  for  home 
consumption,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  farming  is  confined 

to  lands  that  can  be 
irrigated,  either  in  the 
larger  river  valleys  or 
near  the  base  of  the 
mountains,  where  the 
waters  from  mountain 
streams  can  be  led 
over  the  land.  The 
lower  mountain  slopes 
are  covered  with  for- 
ests of  spruce,  fir,  and 
bull  pine,  and  here  lum- 
bering is  carried  on. 

Prom  the  population 
map  (p.  57)  compare 
the  density  of  popu- 
lation in  this  section 
with  that  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  Union.  There  are 
not  so  many  people  in  this  whole  section  as  in  the  state 
of  New  Jersey  or  of  South  Carolina.  Compare  the  size  of 
those  states  with  that  of  this  section. 

Nearly  one  third  of  the  Indians  in  the  United  States  five  in  this  section, 
and  yet  there  are  ten  times  as  many  whites  as  Indians.  The  Indians  live 
in  reservations  which  the  government  has  set  apart  for  them,  and  within 
which  no  one  else  is  allowed  to  settle. 

From  the  map  on  p.  60,  compare  this  section  with  the 
eastern  half  of  the  country  as  to  the  number  of  railroads. 
Not  many  railroads  are  necessary  in  a  sparsely  populated 
region.  In  what  general  direction  do  most  of  the  railroads 
of  this  section  extend  ?  Most  of  them  are  parts  of  trans- 
continental lines  which  connect  the  railroad  systems  of 
the  East  with  the  Pacific  coast. 

MONTANA.  What  states  and  country  border  Montana  ¥  What 
part  is  most  mountainous  1  Trace  the  continental  divide  across  the 
state.  What  two  great  rivers  are  east  of  the  divide  ¥  What  two  rivers 
are  west  1  To  what  are  they  tributary  ¥  What  lake  is  in  the  northwest  ¥ 
Locate  the  capital;  the  other  chief  cities. 


Sheep  herding,  Wyoming. 


86 


PARTS   OF   THE   EARTH. 


Montana  produces  more  copper  than  any  other  state  in 
the  Union,  and  ranks  high  in  the  output  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver. What  state  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  produces 
much  copper  ?  (p.  75.)  In  the  broad 
valleys  east  of  the  mountains  more 
wool  is  produced  than  in  any  other 
state  in  the  Union ;  many  cattle 
are  raised;  and  crops  of  wheat  and 
oats  are  grown.  There  are  sev- 
eral Indian  reservations  within  the 
state.    - 

Helena,  the  chief  commercial  city, 
is  in  a  rich  mineral  region.  Butte 
is  one  of  the  great  copper-mining 


The  Yellowstone  National  Park  has  been  reserved  from 
settlement  by  the  Federal  government.  It  contains  the 
most  wonderful  geyser  region  in  the  world,  and  hundreds 

of  hot  springs  whose 
basins  are  composed 
of  beautiful  mineral 
deposits  from  the 
cooling  waters  (p.  14). 
Besides  these  there 
are  several  beautiful 
lakes,  the  Great  Falls 
and  canyon  of  the 
Yellowstone  River, 
and  many  lofty  moun- 
tain peaks.  It  is  vis- 
ited every  year  by 
travelers  from  all 
parts    of    the    world. 

COLORADO.     What  di- 
visions   border    Colorado  1 
Trace   the  continental   di- 
vide across  the  state.    Name  four  mountain  ranges. 
Locate  four  "  parks  "  among  the  mountains  ;  three 
mountain  peaks.    What  great  rivers  have  head 
waters   within  the  state  1     Locate  the  capital ; 
two   other  cities  east  of    the    mountains;    one 
city  among  the  mountains,  near  the  source  of 
the  Arkansas  River. 


Entrance  to  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colorado. 

centers  of  the  world.    Anaconda  also  has 
large  works  for  the  reduction  of  copper  ore, 
Great  Falls  is  an  important  manufacturing  center 

IDAHO.  What  states  and  country  border  Idaho  1  What  river  drains 
the  southern  part ;  the  northern  part  ?  What  part  is  mountainous  1 
To  what  physical  region  does  Idaho  belong  ?  What  is  the  character  of 
its  surface  ?    Locate  the  capital. 

The  silver  ores  of  the  northern  part  of  the  state  are  rich 
in  lead,  and  Idaho  is  one  of  the  great  lead-producing 
states  in  the  Union ;  the  yield  of  silver  and  gold  is  also 
large.  In  the  north  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  the  growth 
of  wheat  in  the  valleys  and  for  fine  forests  on  the  moun- 
tain sides,  so  that  both  agriculture  and  lumbering  are  car- 
ried on.  Boise  is  in  an  excellent  grazing  region. 
■  *■» 

WYOMING.  What  states  border  Wyoming  ?'  Trace  the  continental 
divide  through  the  state.  What  three  river  systems  have  head  waters  in 
this  state  ?  What  are  the  chief  mountain  ranges  ?  Locate  the  Yellow- 
stone Park.    Name  the  capital ;  two  other  towns. 

The  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  coal  mining,  are  the 
chief  occupations  in  Wyoming.  It  is  the  only  state  in  the 
section  where  coal  mines  are  more  valuable  than  the 
mines  of  the  metals.  Yet  much  ore  is  smelted  along 
the  transcontinental  railroad  which  crosses  the  southern 
part  of  the  state. 

Cheyenne  and  Laramie  are  railroad  towns  and  important 
collecting  and  distributing  centers.  Bock  Springs  is  in  the 
coal  region. 


Bars  of  silver,  Leadville,  Colorado. 

/  Colorado  contains  about  one  third  of  all  the  people 
of  the  Plateau  Section.  It  produces  more  silver  than 
any  other  region  in  the  world,  and  it  ranks  first  among 
the  states  of  our  country  in  the  production  of  gold  and 
of  lead.  The  state  has  also  valuable  mines  of  iron  ore 
and  of  coal.  Considerable  crops  of  wheat  and  garden 
produce  are  raised,  chiefly  east  of  the  mountains,  and 
herding  is  important  in  the  "parks,"  especially  in  the 
south.  Many  invalids  resort  to  Colorado  because  of  its 
dry,  pure  air. 

Denver  is  the  receiving  and  distributing  point  for  a  wide 
mining  and  herding  region.  It  is  the  chief  railroad  center 
of  the  state,  and  the  largest  city  of  the  section,  having 
grown  very  rapidly  since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Colo- 
rado just  before  the  Civil  War.    Pueblo  has  easy  access  by 


UNITED   STATES. 


87 


way  of  the  Arkansas 
canyon  into  the  silver- 
and  lead-mining  re- 
gion in  the  mountains, 
and  is  convenient  to 
regions  where  coal, 
iron,  and  petroleum 
are  obtained.  It  has 
smelting  works,  roll- 
ing mills,  and  oil 
refineries.  Colorado 
Springs  is  a  great 
health  resort.  Near 
by  is  the  beautiful  val- 


An  Indian  pueblo,  New  Mexico. 


ley  called  the  Garden  of  the  Gods.  Leadville,  one  of  the  high- 
est cities  in  the  world,  is  the  silver-  and  lead-mining  center. 

UTAH.  What  divisions  border  Utah  ?  What  mountain  range  tra- 
verses the  center  of  the  state  ?  What  river  drains  the  eastern  half  of  the 
state  ?  In  what  physical  region  is  the  western  half  ?  What  large  lake  is 
in  the  state  ?  What  is  the  history  of  this  lake  ?  (pp.  52,  53.)  What  is  the 
capital  of  Utah  ?    Name  three  other  cities.    Where  are  they  located  ? 

By  irrigation  the  region  along  the  west  base  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains  produces  larger  crops  than  are  raised 
anywhere  else  in  the  section.  Much  wool  is  also  produced. 
The  lead-silver  mines  make  Utah  one  of  the  great  lead- 
producing  states. 

Utah  was  settled  earlier  than  the  neighboring  states,  by 
a  band  of  people  called  Mormons. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  the  trade  center  of  the  state.  Water 
from  the  mountains  is  led  through  the  city  in  pipes  and 
open  ditches.  Ogden  is  a  railroad  center  on  a  transcon- 
tinental line.  Provo  City  and  Logan  are  important  busi- 
ness centers  of  irrigated  regions. 

NEVADA.  What  divisions  border  Nevada?  What  parts  of  the 
state  are  drained  by  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific  ?  What  becomes  of 
most  of  the  streams  in  the  state  ?  Name  the  chief  lakes.  Which  have 
no  outlets  ?    Locate  the  capital ;  two  other  cities. 

Nevada  lies  chiefly  in  the  Great  Basin,  and  much  of  it 
is  arid  and  desert  land.    Only  along  the  valley  of  the  Hum- 
boldt,  and  in  some  of   the 
mountain  valleys,  is  agricul- 
ture carried  on.    Gold,  silver, 
and  lead  are  mined. 

Carson  City  contains  hot 
springs,  and  is  a  resort  for 
invalids.  Virginia  City,  on 
the  famous  Comstock  lode,  is 
the  mining  center.  Reno,  on 
a  transcontinental  railway,  is 
the  commercial  center. 

NEW  MEXICO".  What  section 
of  the  Union  is  east  of  New  Mexico  ? 
What  divisions  border  New  Mex- 
ico t  Trace  the  continental  divide 
th  rough  it.  What  river  system  drains 
the  west  ?  What  large  river  crosses 
from  north  to  south  ?  What  rivers 
are  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  ?  Locate 
the  capital ;  two  other  cities. 


The  chief  industry  of  New  Mexico  is  stock  rais- 
ing, though  there  are  coal  mines  and  several  gold 
and  silver  mines. 

There  are  in  New  Mexico  many  people  of  Spanish  descent 
who  still  speak  the  Spanish  language.  There  are  also  many 
Indians,  among  them  several  communities,  each  of  which  builds 
its  village  or  "  pueblo  "as  a  single  great  building,  made  of  sun- 
dried  brick.     The  pueblos  are  often  several  stories  high.    Each 

family  occupies  a  separate 
room,  which  is  entered  by 
means  of  ladders  from  the 
roof. 

Albuquerque,  the 
largest  city,  is  a  rail- 
road junction.  Las 
Vegas  has  iron  found- 
ries, woolen  mills, 
and  famous  medicinal 
springs.  Santa  Fe 
was  a  thriving  pueblo 
long  before  white  men 
came  to  America. 


The  Grand  Canyon,  Arizona. 


The  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple,  Salt  Lake  City. 


ARIZONA.  What  di- 
visions of  the  Union  bor- 
der Arizona?  What  for- 
eign country?  Name  the 
principal   streams.    What 

part  is  lowland?    Where  is  there  a  strip  of  lowland  in  the  northern 

part  ?    Locate  the  -capital ;  another  city. 

The  lowlands  of  southwestern  Arizona  are  the  driest 
and  hottest  part  of  the  United  States,  but,  where  irriga- 
tion is  possible,  excellent  fruit  and  semitropical  plants  are 
raised.  The  mining  of  copper  and  silver  is  an  important 
industry. 

Many  of  the  people  are  of  Spanish  descent,  and  there  are  more 
Indians  than  in  any  other  division  of  this  section. 

Phoenix,  the  commercial  center,  is  in  a  well-irrigated 
region  and  is  a  growing  town.     Tucson  is  a  mining  center 

and  contains  works  for  the 
reduction  of  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  ores. 


Supplemental  Work.  Read  chap- 
ters 24  and  31  of  McMaster's  "  School 
History  of  the  United  States;" 
"The  Golden  West,"  by  Margaret 
Sidney  ;  "  Some  Strange  Corners  of 
Our  Country,"  by  Charles  F.  Lum- 
mis ;  "  Zigzag  Journeys  in  the  Great 
Northwest,"  by  Hezekiah  Butter- 
worth  ;  "  A  Scene  on  the  Yel- 
lowstone," in  Sheldon's  Fifth 
Reader ;  "  Through  the  Grand 
Canyon,"  in  McGuffey's  Alternate 
Sixth  Reader ;  Longfellow's  "  Poems 
of  Places,"  VoL  29.  Describe  one 
city  or  scene  in  the  Plateau  states. 
Write  next  day  a  reproduction  of 
the  description  given  by  one  of  your 
schoolmates. 


Longitude        1% 


West 


[t.Y.FUBQUHUBPCL 


UNITED  STATES. 


89 


THE  PACIFIC  SECTION. 

What  three  states  compose  this  section  ?  What  great  mountain  ranges 
traverse  its  central  part  1    What  part  of  the  region  receives  ample  rain- 
fall 1  (p.  54.)     What  parts  are  quite 
dry  ?    What  have  you  learned  of 
the  seasons  on  the  Pacific  coast? 

The  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
Cascade  Mountains  are  about 
as  high  as  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, But  they  seem  much 
higher  and  grander  when 
viewed  from  the  west,  be- 
cause they  rise  from  lowland 
valleys  instead  of  from  a  high 
plateau. 

These  great  ranges  contain  some 
of  the  grandest  mountain  scenery  in 
the  country.  The  higher  peaks  of 
both  ranges  reach  the  limit  of  per- 
petual snow,  and  their  upper  valleys  contain  small  glaciers.  There  are 
•  deep  gorges  and  canyons  in  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
One  of  these,  the  Yosemite  valley,  is  especially  noted  for  its  magnificent 
scenery.  The  Cascade  Mountains  are  noted  for  their  high  volcanic  cones, 
chief  among  which  are  Mount  Shasta  and  Mount  Rainier. 

West  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and'Cascade  Mountains  there 
is  .comparatively  little  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  temperatures.  East  of  the  mountains,  however, 
the  climate  is  much  drier,  with  hotter  summers  and  colder 
winters.  The  rainfall  west  of  the  mountains  occurs  almost 
entirely  during  the  winter  months.    Why 

In  the  north  the  rainfall  is  much  heavier  than  in  the  south,  and  enough 
falls  in  the  Columbia  valley  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  for  success- 
ful farming.  In  the  south,  however,  irrigation  is  necessary  in  many  lo- 
calities. North  of  Point  Conception,  chilly  and  foggy  weather  is  com- 
mon near  the  coast,  but  south  of  that  point  the  weather  is  warm  and 
delightful  throughout  most  of  the  year. 

Agriculture   is  the  principal   industry  in  the  valleys 
west  of  the  great  mountain  ranges,  and  wheat,  grapes, 
and  other  fruit  are  the  most  important  crops.   Much  wheat 
is  also  raised  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  the  Colum- 
bia valley.      Great 
quantities  of  barley 
and  hops  are  also 
grown  in  this  sec- 
tion.    In  the  drier 
regions,  and  on  the 
mountain      slopes, 
cattle    and     sheep 
raising  are  impor- 
tant     occupations. 
The  wool  clip  of  this 
section  is  very  large. 

What  part  of  the 
section  is  wooded? 
(map,  p.  59.)  These 
forests  are  the  heav- 
iest in  the  United 
States.  Those  in 
the  central  part  of 


the  section  are  composed  chiefly  of  great  redwoods,  while 
farther  to  the  north  the  "Douglas  fir"  is  the  most  valu- 
able tree.    In  these  regions  lumbering  is  a  great  industry. 

Gold  mining  is  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  west  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which 
is  one  of  the  richest  gold  fields 
in  the  world.  Much  quick- 
silver is  mined  in  the  central 
part  of  this  section,  and  con- 
siderable coal  in  the  north. 


Hydraulic  gold  mining,  California. 


hydraulic  mining. 
solid  rock. 


Ages  ago  grains  of  gold  were 
deposited  with  other  detritus  in  the 
flood  plains  of  many  of  the  moun- 
tain streams.  These  gold-bearing 
gravel  banks  are  dissolved  by  squirt- 
ing powerful  streams  of  water 
against  them,  and  the  gold  is  col- 
lected from  the  muddy  water  which 
flows  away ;  the  process  being  called 
Much  gold  is  also  mined  directly  from  veins  in  the 


Gathering  grapes,  California. 


How  does  the  density  of  population  in  this  section 
compare  with  that  in  the  Plateau  Section  ?  Although 
the  population,  especially  in  the  great  valleys,  is  greater 
than  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland,  the  section  is  still 
quite  thinly  settled.  The  whole  section  does  not  contain 
so  many  people  as  the  city  of  New  York.    About  half 

the  people  are  foreign- 
ers, mostly  German  and 
Irish,  but  there  are  also 
many  Chinese. 

Notice  on  the  railroad 
map  (p.  60)  that  the 
section  is  traversed  by 
railroads  from  north  to 
south  along  the  line  of 
the  Sound  and  California 
valleys.  Most  of  the  rail- 
roads which  enter  the 
section,  however,  are  the 
great  transcontinental 
lines  which  cross  the 
Rocky  Mountain  high- 
land from  the  Missis- 
sippi valley.  In  what 
two  parts  of  the  section  do  these  trans- 
continental lines  converge? 

The  coast  is  closely  bordered  by  the 
Coast  Ranges,  and  has  few  bays  and 
harbors.  The  ranges  are  broken  in  the 
north,  however,  by  Puget  Sound  and  the 
Columbia  River,  and  in  the  central  part 
by  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  These 
indentations  afford  safe  harborage  to 
the  largest  vessels,  and  from  them 
almost  all  the  foi-eign  commerce  of  our 
Pacific  coast  is  carried  on.  Why,  then,  do 
the  railroads  converge  where  they  do  ? 


90 


PARTS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


WASHINGTON.     By  what  is  Washington  bordered  ?    What  parts 
of  the  state  lie  in  the  Columbia  valley  ?     What  sound  is  in  the  north- 
west ?    By  what  strait  is  it  joined  to  the   Pacific  ?  '  What  part  of  the 
state  is  mountainous  ?    Locate  the  capital ;  two 
other  cities  in  the  west ;  one  in  the  east.  -— — ..  ._-._. — === —    __ 


The  western  part  of  the  state  is  well 
covered  with  cone-bearing  forests, 
which  are  its  chief  wealth.  The  largest 
lumber  mills  in  the  world  are  along 
Puget  Sound.  The  fertile  farming 
lands  in  the  Sound  valley  and  east 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains  yield  large 
crops  of  wheat,  hops,  and  fruits. 
Coal  is  mined  in  the  north  more  ex- 
tensively than  elsewhere  in  the  sec- 


carried  on  chiefly  in  the  mountains  of  the  southwest 
and  the  northeast.  The  Columbia  River  salmon  fisheries 
of  Oregon  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  world. 

__ Portland     is     the 

largest  city  in  the 
Northwest.  Now  the 
building  of  jetties 
at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  has  made 
it  possible  for  large 
steamships  to  ascend 
to  the  city,  and  it's 
foreign  commerce  is 
extensive.  Salem  has 
large  flour  and  woolen 
mills.  Astoria  is  the 
center  of  the  salmon- 
fishing  and  canning 
industry,  and  ships 
much  lumber. 


jj^B&S£?5& 


Lumbering,  Washington. 


and 


tion.     The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  River 
Puget  Sound  add  much  to  the  wealth  of  the  state. 

Seattle  is  in  the  coal  and  lumber  region.  Tacoma  is  at 
the  western  end  of  a  transcontinental  railway.  Spokane 
has  a  fine  water  power  and  many  manufactories. 

OREGON.  By  what  is  Oregon  bordered? 
Name  its  three  mountain  ranges.  How  does 
eastern  Oregon  compare  with  eastern  Wash- 
ington in  elevation,  slope,  and  climate  ?  What 
part  of  the  state  is  quite  dry  ?  How  does  the 
map  indicate  this  ?  Name  the  capital ;  one  other 
city  on  the  Willamette ;  one  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia. 


In  the  fertile  Willamette  valley  great 
quantities  of  wheat,  oats,  hops,  and 
fruit  are  raised,  and  much  fine  wheat 
for  export  is  grown  by  the  aid  of  ir- 
rigation in  northeast  Oregon.  The 
wool  clip  is  large,  and  many  cattle  are 
raised.  Magnificent  forests  of  "  Doug- 
las fir"  cover  much  of  the  western 
half  of  the  state,  and  lumbering  is  an 
important  industry.    Grold  mining  is 


Mt.  Hood,  Oregon. 


CALIFORNIA.  By  what 

is  California  bordered  ? 
What  cape  on  the  Atlantic  coast  is  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  the 
northern  state  boundary?  What  Atlantic  coast  city  is  in  nearly  the 
same  latitude  .as  the  southern  state  boundary?  (map,  p.  56.)  Com- 
pare the  area  of  the  state  with  that  of  New  England.  What  mountain 
ranges  are  in  the  state  ?  What  two  rivers  drain  the  California  valley  ? 
Into  what  do  they  flow  ?  Locate  the  capital ;  the  chief  city ;  three 
other  cities  in  the  central  part  of  the  state ;  two  in  the  south. 

California  is  nearly  three  times  as  large  as  any  state  of 
the  Union  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  is  exceeded 
in  size  by  Texas  only.  It  is  one  of  the  first  states  in  the 
Union  in  the  production  of  wool,  wheat,  and  fruit,  greatly 
exceeding  all  others,  in  the  crops  of  grapes,  plums,  and 
apricots.    Oranges  and  lemons  are  raised  in  abundance. 

California  produces  about  one  fourth  of  the  gold  mined 
in  the  United  States,  and  a  large  part  of  the  world's  yield 
of  quicksilver. 

Valuable  lumber  is  obtained  from  the  redwood  forests 

in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.     On  the  west  slopes 

of  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  several  small  groves  of  a  kind 

of  redwood,  which  contain  some  of  the 

most  gigantic  trees  in  the  world. 

The  chief  manufacturing  industries 
are  flour  and  lumber  milling,  the  tan- 
ning of  leather,  wine  making  and  fruit 
preserving,  shipbuilding,  and  the  re- 
fining of  cane  sugar  brought  from  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  "} 

San  Francisco,  one  of  the  nine 
greatest  cities  of  the  Union,  -and  the 
largest  city  on  the  Pacific  slope  of  the 
American  continent,  lies  on  the  pen- 
insula between  San  Francisco  Bay  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  owes  its  growth 
chiefly  to  the  fine,  deep  harbor  af- 
forded by  the  large  and  beautiful  bay. 
The  bay  is  nearly  land-locked,  being 
connected  with  the  ocean  only  by  a 


UNITED   STATES. 


91 


comparatively  narrow  strait,  called  the  Golden  Gate,  just 
north  of  the  city. 

The  city  was  founded  by  Spanish  Franciscan  monks  from  Mexico, 
who  established  here  the  Mission  of  San  Francisco  in  the  same  year  that 
the  English  colonists  on  the  Atlantic  coast  declared  their  independence 
of  Great  Britain.  A  small  Spanish  settlement  sprang  up  about  the  mis- 
sion, and  for  nearly  seventy-five  years  continued  under  the  control  of 
Mexico.  It  then  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States.  The 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  at  about  the  same  time  brought  thousands 
of  people  to  San  Francisco,  and  it  immediately  became  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  center  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a  position  it  has  since  been 
able  to  retain  because  of  the  excellence  of  its  harbor  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  is  reached  from  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  coast  region. 

An  extensive  ocean  commerce  is  carried  on  with  Japan,  China,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
or  around  Cape  Horn,  with  Europe  and  the  east  coast  of  the  United 
States.  The  heaviest  commerce,  however,  is  overland  by  the  transcon- 
tinental railroads.  More  than  half  of  the  manufacturing  of  the  state  is 
centered  in  this  city,  the  chief  industries  being  sugar  refining  and  the 
manufacture  of  clothing  and  mining  machinery. 

Los  Angeles,  the  commercial  center  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia, is  in  the  orange-growing  region.  Oakland,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  bay  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  great 
suburb  and  railroad  terminus  of  that  city,  as  Jersey  City 
is  of  New  York.  Sacramento  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural 
region.  The  city  is  protected  from  floods  by  levees.  San 
~£-Jose  and  Stockton  are  important  trade  centers.  San  Diego 
has  a  good  harbor. 

ALASKA.  Where  is  Alaska  ?  What  country  is  east  of  it  ?  What 
waters  are  north,  west,  and  south  1  By  what  is  it  separated  from  Asia  ? 
How  wide  is  this  strait  ?  What  part  is  most  mountainous  ?  What  great 
river  traverses  the  country  ?    To  what  nation  does  Alaska  belong  1 

Alaska  is  almost  as  large  as  Washington,  Oregon,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Texas  taken  together,  and  yet  it  does  not  con- 


Muir  glacier,  Alaska. 

tain  so  many  people  as  the  city  of  Oakland.  On  the  map 
of  North  America  (p.  44)  compare  the  latitude  of  Alaska 
with  that  of  Greenland.  Can  you  give  one  reason  why 
so  few  people  live  in  Alaska  ? 

The  southern  coast  of  Alaska  is  very  rough  and  moun- 
tainous. Some  of  the  peaks  of  these  mountain  ranges  are 
over  three  miles  high;  they  are  the  highest  in  North 
America.  These  mountains  prevent  the  warm,  moist  winds 
of  the  Pacific  from  reaching  the  interior,  which  is  conse- 


quently very  cold  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
Part  of  the  interior  is  covered  with  open  forests,  but  much 
of  it  is  a  bleak  tundra.  The  southern  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains are  much  warmer,  receive  abundant  rains,  and  are 
covered  with  forests.  The  summits  of  the  mountains  are 
always  snow-clad.  Great  glaciers  creep  down  most  of  the 
larger  valleys,  many  of  them  extending  to  the  sea. 

About  half  of  the  inhabitants  are  whites,  and  the  rest 
are  chiefly  Indians  and  Eskimos.     Most  of  the  people  live 


l 


A  street  in  Sitka,  Alaska. 

near  the  southern  and  western  coasts.     Some  hardy  vege- 
tables grow  in  the  south,  but  it  is  too  damp  for  grain. 

The  chief  occupations  are  hunting  fur-bearing  animals, 
fishing  for  cod  and  salmon,  and  gold  mining. 

Where  are  the  Pribilof  Islands  f  Thousands  of  fur  seals  go  to  these 
islands  every  summer  and  establish  rookeries,  or  nurseries,  where  their 
young  are  born  and  taught  to  swim.  Most  of  our  sealskin  garments  are 
made  from  the  skins  of  seals  killed  on  or  near  these  islands.  The  sea 
otter,  the  marten  or  sable,  the  black  bear,  and  the  silver  fox  are  also 
killed  in  Alaska  for  their  fur.  Gold  is  found  in  many  places  ic  Alaska. 
There  are  rich  fields  near  Cape  Nome  and  on  the  Koyukuk  Biver.  A 
rich  gold  field  is  on  the  Klondike,  a  branch  of  the  Yukon  Biver  in 
Canada,  just  across  the  Alaskan  boundary,  and  many  white  miners  have 
gone  through  Alaska  to  found  Dawson  and  other  mining  towns  in  that 
region.  But  mining  in  that  latitude  is  very  costly  and  dangerous  because 
of  the  rigor  of  the  climate  and  the  scarcity  of  food. 

Alaska  was  formerly  ruled  by  a  governor  and  other 
officers  appointed  by  the  President,  but  in  1900  a  more 
complete  territorial  government  was  established  by  act 
of  Congress.  The  chief  settlements  are  Juneau,  Nome, 
and  Skagway.     Sitka  is  on  Baranof  Island. 

Hawaii,  Samoa,  p.  153.     Porto  Rico,  p.  100.     Philippines,  p.  142. 

Supplemental  Work.  Bead  "  The  Young  Nimrods  in  North  America," 
by  T.  W.  Knox ;  "  Three  Vassar  Girls  at  Home,"  by  Lizzie  W.  Champney ; 
"  The  Pacific  Coast  Scenic  Tour,"  by  Henry  T.  Finck,  or  "  The  Valley 
of  the  Yosemite,"  in  Sheldon's  Fifth  Beader.  Bead  or  recite  one  selection 
on  these  states  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  29.  Describe 
one  city  or  scene  in  this  section  as  fully  as  San  Francisco  is  described. 
Write  next  day  a  reproduction  of  the  description  given  by  one  of  your 
schoolmates.  Bead  "  Our  Western  Archipelago,"  by  Henry  M.  Field ; 
"A  Woman's  Trip  to  Alaska,"  by  Mrs.  S.  M.  Collis. 


if  I 

ft  *    / 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Rocky  Mountains,  Canada. 


THE  DOMINION  OF   CANADA. 

What  country  borders  the  United  States  on  the  north  ?    In  what  zones 
is  Canada?    Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  it  extend? 
Through  how  many  degrees  of  longitude  ?    How  does  it  compare  with 
the    main     body     of    the 
United    States    in    extent 
of  latitude  and  longitude? 
Do  degrees  of  longitude  in 
central    Canada   and   cen- 
tral United  States  contain 
the  same  number  of  miles  ? 
Compare  the  two  countries 
in  area. 

What  great  bay  is  in 
Canada  ?  Compare  it  with 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  posi- 
tion, size,  depth,  and  use- 
fulness. What  archipelago 
is  north  of  Canada  ?  What 
strait  separates  the  eastern 
part  of  this  archipelago 
from  the  mainland  ?  What 
two  peninsulas  are  on  the 
north  coast  of  Canada? 
What  gulf  is  east  of  Can- 
ada? What  four  large  is- 
lands are  bordered  by  the 
waters  of  this  gulf?  What  peninsula?  What  large  islands  are  off  the 
west  coast  of  Canada? 

From  the  physical  map  of  North  America  locate  the  highlands  of 
Canada.  .  Compare  the  width  of  the  western  highland  with  that  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  highland  in  the  United  States.  Locate  the  principal 
mountain  ranges.  What  plateau  is  in  the  east  ?  What  part  of  Canada 
is  lowland?  Trace  the  divide  of  the  Hudson  Bay  slope  (p.  92).  Name 
the  principal  river  basins  of  that  slope ;  of  the  Arctic  slope ;  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  slope.  Name  the  chief  basins  of  the  Pacific 
slope.  In  which  of  the  basins  of  Canada  are  there  large  lakes  1  In 
which  are  the  largest  lakes  ? 

From  the  maps  on  p.  46  describe  the  climate  and  rainfall  of  eastern, 
central,  and  western  Canada. 

So  much  snow  falls  on  the  western  highland  of  Canada 
that  the  higher  parts  of  the  mountain  ranges  abound  in 
glaciers.  Nearly  all  the  large  rivers  which  rise  in  this  re- 
gion flow  from  the  melting  ends  of  glaciers.  Many  of  the 
snow-topped  mountains  have  precipitous  sides,  and  their 
lower  slopes  are  covered  with  heavy  evergreen  forests,  so 
that  this  region  is  noted  for  its  scenery. 

Which  side  of  the  Laurentian  plateau  is  highest  ?  The 
coast  of  Labrador  is  mainly  rough  and  rugged,  but  it 
contains  many  good  harbors.  The  greater  part  of  the 
plateau  is  bleak  and  unfit  for  cultivation. 

The  northern  coast  of  Canada  is  so  cold  that  neither 
trees  nor  food  plants  can  grow  there.  Farther  south,  a 
broad  forest  belt  stretches  entirely  across  the  continent, 
though  large  parts  of  it  have  been  injured  by  fire.  In 
the  southern  part  of  this  belt  are  valuable  forests  of  pine 


and  other  building  timber.  Wheat  and  the  hardier  plants 
of  the  temperate  zone  ripen  in  southern  Canada,  though  the 
winters  are  long  and  cold.  The  basin  of  the  Saskatch- 
ewan is  the  chief  wheat-growing  region,  and  tie  penin- 
sula between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake 
Erie  is  a  fruit  and  dairy  region. 

In  the  cold,  uninhabited  regions 
of  the  north,  caribou  and  fur-bearing 
animals  are  abundant.  The  coast 
fisheries  of  southern  Canada  are 
among  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world.  Cod,  herring,  and  mackerel 
are  the  chief  catch  in  the  eastern, 
and  salmon  in  the  western  coast 
waters. 

The  mineral  product  is  about  equal 
in  value  to  that  of  the  fisheries. 
Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  mined 
in  the  western  part,  and  coal  in  both 
east  and  west.  Nickel  also  is  a  valu- 
able mineral  product. 

Although  Canada  is  about  as  large 
as  the  United  States,  the  population 
is  not  so  great  as  that  of  New  York  state.  In  what  part 
of  Canada  is  the  population  most  dense  ?  (map,  p.  49.) 

The  first  white  settlers  in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  were  Frenchmen, 
but  thirteen  years  before  the  United  States  was  formed,  Great  Britain 
gained  possession  of  Canada  by  war.  British  settlers  and  their  descend- 
ants now  form  the  greater  part  of  the  population,  and  their  energy  has 
made  of  Canada  the  most  prosperous  part  of  the  Western  Continent,  after 
the  United  States.  There  are,  however,  many  descendants  of  the  old 
French  settlers  still  living  in  Canada.  Most  of  them  live  in  the  lower  St. 
Lawrence  valley,  and  many  of  them  are  in  language,  dress,  and  manners 


Fur  trading  post  in  northern  Canada. 


93 


94 


PARTS   OF   THE  EARTH. 


much  like  the  people  of  France  a 
hundred  years  ago.  They  belong 
mainly  to  the  Catholic  Church,  while 
the  greater  part  of  the  people  of 
English  descent  are  Protestants.  In 
the  region  farther  west  there  are 
many  "  half-breeds"  of  mixed  French 
and  Indian  descent. 

In  the  northern  part  are  a  few 
thousand  Eskimos  and  other  Indi- 
ans. In  the  winter  the  Eskimos  build 
their  huts  of  snow  or  of  stones  along 
the  coast,  but  in  summer  they  mi- 
grate inland  to  the  regions  where  the 
caribou  are  abundant.  The  Indians 
are  hunters  and  trappers.  The  game 
which  they  procure  is  valuable  chiefly 
for  the  fur.  All  through  this  region 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  has  estab- 
lished trading  posts,  where  most  of 
the  pelts  are  sold. 

Although  Canada  remains  a  Brit- 
ish possession,  the  French  retain  the 
two  small  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and 

Miquelon,  south  of  Newfoundland,  which  they  use  as  fishing  stations. 
Point  them  out  on  the  map. 

The  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  has  permitted  the  people 
of  Canada  to  form  a  government,  for  the  management  of 


Wharves  at  Montreal. 


j-«LB_»«Ja-W-«t.1 


Parliament  building,  Ottawa. 

Canadian  affairs,  something  like  that  of  the  United  States. 
There  are  seven  provinces,  similar  to  our  states,  each  with 
its  local  government,  and  a  number  of  thinly  settled  dis- 
tricts, somewhat  like  our  territories,  which  together  have  a 
single  local  government.  The  people  of  each  province 
and  of  all  the  districts  together  elect  representatives  to  a 
Parliament,  like  our  Congress,  which  makes  laws  for  the 
whole  Dominion.  But  instead  of  an  elected  president,  as 
in  our  country,  Canada  has  a  governor  general  appointed 
by  the  monarch  of  Great  Britain. 

Where  is  the  province  of  Prince  Edivard  Island  1  It  is 
the  smallest  and  most  thickly  settled  province.  What  is 
the  name  of  its  capital  ? 

Of  what  two  natural  divisions  is  the  province  of  Nova 
Scotia  formed?    The  fisheries  of  this  province  are  more 


valuable  than  those  of  any 
other.  Most  of  the  coal 
mined  in  eastern  Canada 
comes  from  Nova  Scotia. 
Name  and  locate  the  capital. 
It  is  the  chief  British  naval 
station  in  North  America. 

From  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick  lumber  and  cured 
fish  are  exported.  Name  and 
locate  the  capital.  St.  John 
is  the  largest  city  and  the 
chief  port. 

By  what  waters  are  these 
three  provinces  bordered? 

What  province  is  north  of 
New  Brunswick  ?  Quebec  is 
settled  mainly  by  people  of 
French  descent.  In  popu- 
lation and  wealth  it  ranks 
second  among  the  provinces  of  Canada.  The  city  of  Que- 
bec is  the  oldest  city  in  Canada,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in 
North  America.  The  upper  city  is  situated  on  a  high 
bluff  overlooking  the  river,  and  is  surrounded  by  fortifi- 
cations; the  business  part  of  the  city  lies  without  the 
walls,  along  the  river  front.  Where  is  Montreal  ?  Ocean 
steamships  ascend  the  river  to  its  wharves.  In  winter, 
when  the  river  and  gulf  are  ice-locked,  through  what 
American  city  does  the  trade  of  Montreal  pass?  (p.  63.) 
What  province  borders  the  Great  Lakes?  Ontario  is 
the  most  prosperous  and  wealthy  province  of  Canada,  and 
contains  nearly  half  the  population.  Toronto  is  the  capi- 
tal. Where  is  it?  The  capital  of  the  whole  Dominion 
is  also  in  Ontario.    What  is  its  name  ? 

In  what  great  river  basin  is  the  province  of  Manitoba  ? 
What  three  districts  lie  mostly  in  the  same  basin  ?  What 
is  the  chief  crop  of  these  districts  and  this  province? 
What  is  the  capital  of  Manitoba?  It  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial center  of  the  region. 


The  Citadel,  Quebec. 


COUNTRIES  NORTH   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES. 


95 


What  province  borders  on  the  Pacific?     This  is  the 
largest  of  the  provinces.     Gold  and  coal  mining  are  the 
chief  employments.    Name  and  locate  the  capital.    Van- 
couver, the  largest  town  on  the  mainland, 
is  an  important  commercial  center.  „; 

The  chief  wealth  of  the  districts  in 
northern  Canada  is  derived  from  the  fur 
trade.  The  district  of  Yukon,  however, 
is  more  important  for  the  rich  gold  mines 
in  the  Klondike  region.  What  city  is 
the  center  of  this  region  ? 

Most  of  the  trade  of  Canada  is  with 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
Her  exports  are  largely  to  Great  Britain ; 
her  imports  largely  from  the  United 
States.  From  Montreal,  from  St.  John, 
and  from  Halifax  steamship  lines  run  to 
European  ports,  and  from  Vancouver 
there  are  steamship  lines  to  Japan  and 
Australia.  From  Montreal  to  Vancouver 
there  is  a  great  transcontinental  rail- 
road, connecting  by  branch  roads  with  the  chief  northern 
cities  of  the  United  States.  This  road  is  shorter  than 
any  of  the  northern  transcontinental  roads  in  the  United 
States,  and  crosses  the  western  highlands  by  lower  passes. 
Therefore,  besides  the  foreign  trade  of  the  Dominion 
itself,  considerable  traffic  between  Europe  and  Asia  crosses 
Canada. 

The  island  of  Newfoundland,  together  with  the  Labra- 
dor coast,  forms  a  British  colony  by  itself,  and  is  not  a 
part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  interior  of  the 
island  is  a  wilderness.  The  chief  occupation  is  fishing, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  population  of  the  island  live  along 
the  coast  of  the  mainland  during  the  fishing  season.  What 
is  the  capital  of  Newfoundland  ? 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "  The  Story  of  Canada,"  by  J.  G.  Bou- 
rinot;  "Zigzag  Journeys  in  Acadia  and  New  France,"  by  Hezekiah 
Butterwortb. ;  "  Great-grandmother's  Girls  in  New  France,"  by  Lizzie 
W.  Champney ;  chapters  40  and  41  of  "  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader, 
North  America."  Read  or  recite  one  selection  about  Canada  from 
Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  30. 


A  Newfoundland  fishing  schooner. 


DANISH  AMERICA. 

What  two  islands  rise  from  the  continental  plateau  between  Europe  and 
America  ?  (maps,  pp.  8  and  16.)   In  what  hemisphere  is  Greenland  ;  most 

of  Iceland?  Are  these  islands 
nearer  to  America  or  to  Europe  ? 
Which  of  them  is  the  larger  ? 
How  does  Greenland  seem  to  rank 
among  the  islands  of  the  world 
in  size? 

GREENLAND.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  Greenland  is  cov- 
\  ered  hundreds,  possibly 
thousands,  of  feet  deep  by 
a  continental  glacier.  It 
is  only  near  the  coast  that 
the  surface  of  the  land  is 
not  covered  with  ice.  It 
is  thought  that  Greenland 
may  not  be  a  single  island, 
but  may  consist  of  several 
islands  connected  by  the 
ice  cap.  What  sort  of 
a  coast  has  the  southern  half  of  Greenland?  Judging 
from  the  coast  line,  do  you  think  the  part  of  the  continen- 
tal plateau  occupied  by  Greenland  has  recently  sunk  or 
risen  ?  Some  people  believe  that  it  is  the  great  weight  of 
the  ice  sheet  that  has  caused  Greenland  to  sink !  In  places 
the  ice  sheet  extends  into  the  sea,  forming  long  ice  cliffs. 
Icebergs  broken  from  these  cliffs  render  the  navigation  of 
the  Atlantic  dangerous  at  cei'tain  seasons  as  far  south  as 
the  neighborhood  of  Newfoundland.  In  southern  Green- 
land the  ice  sheet  reaches  the  sea  only  at  the  heads  of 
the  numerous  long,  narrow  fiords,  between  which  a  nar- 
row strip  of  high,  rocky  coast  is  not  ice-covered. 

On  this  coast  region  grows  a  scanty  Arctic  vegetation, 
chiefly  mosses  and  lichens,  with  here  and  there  patches  of 
grass,  and,  during  the  short  summer,  some  flowering 
plants.  There  are  also  a  few  stunted  trees,  but  they  rarely 
grow  higher  than  a  man's  head.  The  principal  wild  animals 
of  the  land  are  the  musk  ox,  the  reindeer,  the  arctic  fox, 
and  the  polar  bear.  The  coast  waters  are  frequented  by 
seals,  walruses,  whales,  and  fish,  besides  millions  of  eider 
ducks,  and  other  aquatic  birds. 


Montmorency  Falls  (near  Quebec)  in  winter. 


Traveling  on  the  ice  cap  in  Greenland. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


9? 


But  few  people  live 
in  Greenland,  and  most 
of  these  are  Eskimos. 
They  are  a  cheerful 
but  ignorant  people, 
and  live  in  low,  filthy 
hovels  made  of  loose 
stones,  or  sometimes 
of  blocks  of  snow  and 
ice.  They  live  chiefly 
by  fishing  and  hunt- 
ing for  sea  animals, 
using  the  flesh  for 
food,  the  fur  for  cloth- 
ing, and  the  fat  for 
fuel.  On  the  southwest 
coast  there  are  two 
or  three  small  trading 
settlements  of  white  men  from  Denmark. 

ICELAND  is  about  as  large  as  the. state  of 
Indiana.  It  is  mostly  a  rugged  plateau  con- 
taining, in  the  north,  many  volcanoes,  several 
of  which  are  active  and  cause  frequent  earth- 
quakes. Most  of  the  island  is  covered  with 
the  lava  outflows  from  these  volcanoes.  Hot 
springs  are  numerous,  and  there  are  sev- 
eral fine  geysers.  Parts  of  the  island  are 
covered  with  ice  fields,  and  the  deep  fiords 
of  the  northern  coast  are  often  packed  with 
ice  brought  in  by  the  Arctic  currents.    The 


Eskimo  boy  and  dog. 


southern  coast  is  much  less  broken,  and  is  kept  free  from 
ice  by  the  warm  currents  from  the  south. 

The  climate,  though  raw  and  moist,  is  moderated  in  the 
south  by  winds  from  the  ocean,  and  grass  and  vegetables 
grow  well,  though  it  is  too  cold  for  grain,  and  there  are  but 
few  trees.  There  are  very  few  native  land  mammals,  but 
many  birds,  and  the  coast  waters  abound  in  excellent  fish. 

Iceland  was  discovered  and  settled  by  Northmen  from 
Europe  long  before  Columbus  discovered  America,  and 
their  descendants  still  live  there,  chiefly  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  island.  They  are  thrifty,  intelligent,  well- 
educated  people,  and  are  employed  chiefly  in  raising  sheep, 

cattle,    and    horses, 


and  in  fishing. 

The  people  choose 
the  members  of  the 
Con  gress,  or  A  Ithing, 
which  meets  at  the 
town  of  Reikiavik  to 
make  the  laws ;  but 
the  governor  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  King 
of  Denmark. 

Supplemental  Work. 
Eead  "  My  Arctic  Jour- 
nal," by  Josephine  D. 
Peary,  or 
North," 
Nansen.  Read  or  recite 
"The  Skeleton  in  Ar- 
mor," by  Longfellow. 


'  Farthest 
by      Fridtjof 


Stone  hut,  Greenland. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


MEXICO. 

What  country  borders  the  United  States  on  the  south  ?  Through  how 
many  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  does  it  extend?  Compare  it 
with  the  United  States  in  size.  In  what  zones  is  Mexico  ?  What  waters 
border  it  ?  What  peninsulas  does  it  contain  ?  From  the  map  on  p.  44 
locate  the  lowlands  of  Mexico.  What  part  of  the  country  is  highland  ? 
Name  and  locate  the  chief  mountain  range.  Are  there  many  large  rivers 
in  Mexico  ?    Name  the  two  largest  that  drain  portions  of  the  country. 

The  surface  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland  in  Mexico 
is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  great  plateau  region  in  the 
United  States.    It  is  bordered  on  the  east  and  west  by 
mountain  ranges  corresponding  to 
the  Rocky  and  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, but  the  western  Mexican  range 
is  much  higher  and  more  continuous 
than  the  eastern.     In  the  north  the 
plateau  is  about  three  fourths  of  a 
mile  high,  but  it  rises  gradually  to 
twice  that  elevation  in  the  south. 

In  this  higher  portion  of  the  plateau  are 
many  great  volcanic  cones.    One  of  them,  ^  ;?'■» 

Mount  Orizaba,  is  about  three  and  one  half  Mexican  cart. 


miles  high.     Several  of  the  volcanoes  are  active,  and  earthquakes  are 
not  uncommon  throughout  Mexico. 

Owing  to  the  tropical  position  of  Mexico  there  is  little 
difference  between  the  temperature  of  summer  and  of 
winter ;  but  because  of  the  variation  in  elevation  there  is  a 
great  difference  in  the  temperature  of  different  regions. 
The  lowlands  are  always  hot;  the  plateau  is  always  tem- 
perate ;  and  the  mountain  region,  more  than  1  i  miles  high, 
is  cool  or  cold,  some  of  the  higher  peaks  being  always 
snow-clad.    The  seasons  of  Mexico  are  the  wet  and  the 

dry.  Nearly  all  the  rain  falls  dur- 
ing the  summer  months.  Why  ? 
The  northern  part  has  very  little 
rain  at   any  time.     Why? 

Plants  and  animals  of  both  the 
North  and  the  South  American  re- 
gions are  found  in  Mexico.  Men- 
tion some  of  the  animals  (pp.  30, 
31).  In  the  lowlands  mahogany, 
rosewood,  logwood,  rubber  trees, 
medicinal  plants,  and  vanilla  grow  in 


98 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Drying  coffee,  Mexico. 

the  dense  forests,  and  rice,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  tropical 
fruits  are  cultivated,  as  well  as  the  cassava,  from  the  root  of 
which  the  natives  make  farina  meal  for  their  bread;  and 
Sisal  hemp,  or  henequen,  of  which  cordage  and  hammocks 
are  made.  On  the  mountain  slopes  are  more  open  forests 
of  oak,  pine,  and  other  trees  of  the  temperate  ^ones ;  and  on 
the  lower,  warmer  slopes  coffee  is  cultivated.  On  the  pla- 
teaus grain  and  beans  are  the  chief  crops.  Mexico  exports 
considerable  coffee,  Sisal  hemp,  and  cabinet  and  dye  woods. 

A  characteristic  Mexican  plant  is  the  maguey,  or  "  century  plant," 
from  the  sweet  sap  of  which  the  natives  make  a  kind  of  cider  called 
pulque,  which  is  their  favorite  drink.  It  is  a  species  of  this  plant  that 
yields  the  Sisal  hemp. 

In  the  drier  portions  of  the  plateau  the  raising  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  is  an  important  industry,  and  many  cattle 
and  hides  are  exported. 

The  mines  of  Mexico  are  its  chief  wealth.  What  min- 
erals are  found  in  the  western  highland  of  the  United 
States  ?  Mexico  is  one  of  the  great  silver-producing  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  and  this  metal  and  its  ore  form  the  chief 
exports.  Smaller  quantities  of  gold,  lead,  and  copper  are 
also  exported,  as  well  as  the  beautiful  stone  called  onyx, 
which  is  used  for  interior  decoration. 

Long  before  America  was  colonized  by  white  men,  the  Indians  of  central 
Mexico,  called  Aztecs,  had  advanced  nearly  to  the  stage  of  civilization. 
They  had  formed  a  confed- 
eracy, and  lived  in  pueblos 
built  of  stone,  cultivated  corn 
by  th.e  aid  of  irrigation,  wore 
ornaments  of  gold,  and  knew 
something  of  working  other 
metals. 


Not  long  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America  a 
Spaniard  named  Cortez 
landed  in  Mexico,  sunk 
his  ships  so  that  his  sol- 
diers might  not  return, 
and  conquered  Mexico 
for  Spain.  After  about 
three  hundred  years  of 


Spanish  rule  the  people  rebelled  and  made  their  country 
independent.  Since  then  Mexico  has  had  a  government 
modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States.  The  republic  con- 
sists of  twenty-seven  states,  two  territories,  and  a  federal 
district,  like  the  District  of  Columbia.  About  one  fifth  of 
the  people  are  white,  mostly  descendants  of  Spanish  set- 
tlers; nearly  one  half  are  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian 
blood  ;  and  the  rest  are  pure  Indians.  Most  of  the  land  is 
owned  by  the  white  people.  Many  of  the  Indians  are  la- 
borers in  the  mines,  or  on  the  stock  "ranches,"  or  farms. 
Nearly  all  Mexicans  are  Catholics. 

The  manufactures  of  Mexico  are  mainly  cotton  cloth,  pa- 
per, and  earthenware  for  home  use ;  but  the  Indians  make 
blankets  and  ornamental  feather  and  leather  work  by  hand. 

The  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  with  the  United  States, 
both  by  sea  and  by  the  several  lines  of  railroad  which  con- 
nect the  plateau  region  with  the  railroad  system  of  the 
United  States. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  located  in  the  federal  district. 
It  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  republic,  and 
is  built  in  a  great  basin-shaped  depression  of  the  plateau, 


Market  place,  city  of  Mexico. 


Silver  smeltery,  Mexico. 

which  contains  several  large  lakes.    The  sewage  of  the 
city  and  the  high-water  overflow  of  the  lakes  are  con- 
veyed out  of  the  basin  by  a  drainage  canal  forty  miles    • 
long,  which  for  six  miles  of  its  length  occupies  a  tun- 
nel through  the   surrounding  mountains.     Most  of  the 

buildings  are  low,  and  the  dwell- 
ings are  built  around  courtyards 
ornamented   with   flower   gardens 
and  paved  with  stone.    Railroads^ 
connect  the  city  with  the  railroad"^ 
system  of  the  United  States. 

Where  is  Puebla  t  Here  are  pro- 
duced the  most  important  manu- 
factures of  Mexico,  among  them 
the  famous  Mexican  blankets. 
Nearly  all  the  Mexican  onyx  is 
quarried  near  Puebla.  What  is  the 
chief  Atlantic  seaport  of  Mexico? 
It  is  connected  by  railroad  with 
the  city  of  Mexico,  and  about  two 
thirds  of  the  foreign  trade  goes 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


99 


huts,  Mexico. 

through  this  port.  The  harbor  is  so  shallow,  however, 
that  ships  have  to  unload  into  small  boats.  Find  Guay- 
mas,  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is 
connected  by  rail  with  the  railway  system  of  the  United 
States. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

By  what  waters  is  Central  America  bordered  ?  Which  coast  has  the 
greater  width  of  lowland  ?  (map,  p.  44.)  In  what  direction  does  most 
of  the  country  slope  1    Name  the  chief  lake  of  Central  America. 

The  plateau  of  Central  America  is  neither  so  broad 
nor  so  high  as  that  of  Mexico.  The  mountain  range  near 
the  Pacific  coast  contains  the 
high  cones  of  many  active 
volcanoes,  and  earthquakes 
are  more  frequent  and  severe 
than  in  Mexico.  The  climate 
is  similar  to  that  of  south- 
ern Mexico,  but  warmer  and 
with  a  heavier  rainfall  on 
the  north  coast.    Why? 

The  countries  of  Central 
America  are  more  uniformly 
forest-covered  than  is  Mex- 
ico, but  in  the  interior  there 
are  large  tracts  of  grass  land. 
Sugar,  coffee,  cacao  beans  or 
chocolate  nuts,  tropical  fruits, 
and  cabinet  and  dye  woods 
are  exported. 

During  his  last  voyage  to 
America,  Columbus  lauded 
on  the  coast  of  what  is  now 
called  Honduras.  When  accounts  of  the  country  reached 
Spain,  Spanish  adventurers  established  colonies  in  various 
parts  of  Central  America,  and  for  about  three  hundred 
years  Spain  claimed  the  whole  region,  except  a  strip  along 
the  west  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  which  was  settled 
by  English  logwood  cutters.  This  is  still  a  British  colony. 
What  is  its  name  ?  When  Mexico  rebelled  against  Spain 
the  Spanish  people  of  Central  America  also  became  inde- 
pendent, and  out  of  their  territory  six  small  republics 
have  been  founded.    Name  them. 


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A  house  in  Central  America. 


About  how  many  people  live  in  Central  America? 
(p.  157.)  Which  of  the  United  States  has  about  the  same 
population  ?  There  are  only  a  few  thousand  white  people  in 
the  Central  American  states.  Most  of  these  are  merchants 
and  planters,  and  all  the  foreign  trade  is  in  their  hands. 
The  people  of  mixed  blood  are  more  numerous  than  the 
whites,  but  more  than  half  the  entire  population  are  pure- 
blooded  Indians.  Some  of  them  are  still  barbarous,  but 
most  of  them  are  adopting  the  ways  of  civilized  people. 
What  is  the  capital  of  Guatemala ;  of  Salvador  ?  These 
two  countries  contain  two  thirds  of  the  people  in  Central 
America,  and  are  by  far  the  strongest  and  most  progressive 
of  the  six  republics. 

What  is  the  capital  of  Honduras  f  Honduras  mahogany 
is  specially  noted.  What  is  the  capital  of  Nicaragua? 
What  river  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Nicaragua  ? 

The  name  Costa  Mica  means  "  rich  coast."  What  is  the 
capital  of  this  state  ?  Coffee  has  been  cultivated  in  Costa 
Pica  for  a  hundred  years,  and  much  of  this  product  grown 
elsewhere  in  Central  America  is  also  called  Costa  Rica  coffee. 
Across  Panama  is  being  constructed  a  ship  canal  between 
the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  When  com- 
pleted the  canal  will  make  part  of  a  short  water  route 
between  the  east  and  west  coast  of  America.  Panama,  the 
capital,  is  at  the  south  end,  and  Colon  at  the  north  end  of 
the  canal.  These  two  cities  are  at  present  connected  by  a 
railway  over  which  is  transported  much  foreign  commerce. 

Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  join  the  Central 
American  republics  in  a  fed- 
eral union,  but  no  thorough 
and  permanent  union  has  as 
yet  been  formed. 

THE  WEST   INDIES. 

What  parallel  of  latitude  crosses 
the  central  part  of  the  West  Indies  ? 
Between  what  bodies  of  land  does 
this  island  chain  extend  1  By  what 
waters  is  it  surrounded  ?  What  strait 
and  channel  separate  the  chain  from 
the  mainland  of  North  America? 
Measure  the  length  of  the  chain, 
using  the  scale  of  miles.  On  the 
map  of  the  United  States  (p.  56) 
measure  the  same  distance  west  from 
New  York  city.  Of  what  three  prin- 
cipal island  groups  does  the  chain 
consist?  Name  the  four  largest 
islands  of  the  Greater  Antilles. 

The  islands  of  the  West  Indies  are  partly  volcanic  and 
partly  of  coral  formation  ;  they  are  subject  to  earthquakes, 
and  are  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.  Most  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  are  high,  and  consist  wholly  or  mostly  of  volcanic 
rock.  The  islands  of  the  Greater  Antilles  have  broad 
lowland  coast  regions;  Cuba  is  mainly  lowland.  The 
Bahamas  are  all  low  islands  composed  of  coral  limestone 
and  broken  shell,  and  the  hills  on  these  islands  are  mostly 
wind-formed.  All  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  together 
contain  about  as  much  land  as  the  state  of  Wyoming,  nearly 


100 


PARTS   OF   THE  EARTH. 


half  of  this  being  in  the  single  island  of  Cuba,  which  is 
nearly  as  large  as  the  state  of  New  York  or  Pennsylvania. 

The  larger  islands  are 
forest  -  covered.  The 
vegetation  varies,  as 
in  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  with  the  alti- 
tude. The  most  valu- 
able product  of  the  is- 
lands is  sugar  cane. 
About  one  fourth  of 
all  the  cane  sugar  used 
in  the  world  comes  from 
the  West  Indies,  and  by 
far  the  greater  part  of 
it  from  Cuba,  though  it 
is  the  most  important 
export  of  nearly  every 
one  of  the  islands.    To- 


^ 


by  Great  Britain  laborers  have  been  brought  from  China 
and  southern  Asia  to  work  on  the  plantations. 

The  republic  of  Cuba  is  largely  influenced, 
and  Porto  Rico  is  owned,  by  the  United 
States.  These  two  islands  embrace  about 
half  the  area  of  the  West  Indies.  The 
former  Spanish  rule  was  so  unfavorable  to 
the  colonists  that  they  were  frequently  at 
war  with  Spain,  and  the  great  natural  wealth 
of  the  islands  was  but  partly  developed. 
Name  the  capital  of  each  island.  Havana 
is  the  largest  city  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  great  exporting  point  for  sugar  and  to- 


Plowing  in  Cuba. 


bacco,  known  as  Havana  leaf,  is  another  crop  for  which 
Cuba  is  specially  noted.  What  cities  of  the  United  States 
manufacture  much  Cuban  tobacco  ?  (p.  81.)  Other  impor- 
tant exports  of  the  islands  are  coffee,  cacao  beans,  fresh 
fruit  (bananas,  pineapples,  limes,  oranges,  and  cocoanuts), 
and  cabinet  and  dye  woods.  Excellent  iron  ore  is  also  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States  from  southeastern  Cuba,  and 
asphalt  from  Trinidad.  Find  this  island.  Coarse  sponges 
are  obtained  from  the  sponge  fisheries  of  the  Bahamas,  and 
on  some  of  these  islands  much  salt  is  obtained  by  evapo- 
rating sea  water. 

About  how  many  people  live  in  the  West  Indies  ?  (p.  157.) 
Which  state  of  our  country  contains  about  the  same  popu- 
lation ?  The  Bahamas,  which  are  scarcely  more  than  coral 
reefs,  are  very  thinly  peopled ;  in  Cuba  the  population  is 
moderately  dense ;  the  rest  of  the  islands  are  densely  peo- 
pled. Which  islands  of  the  West  Indies  formerly  belonged 
to  Spain  ?  (p.  49.)  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  white  pop- 
ulation of  the  whole  chain  live  in  these  two  islands,  where 
there  are  nearly  twice  as  many  whites  as  negroes.  In  al- 
most all  the  other  islands  the  negroes  are  much  more 
numerous  than  the  whites,  and  in  Haiti  nearly  all  the  peo- 
ple are  of  the  black  race.    In  several  of  the  islands  owned 


Sorting  sponges  in  the  Bahamas. 


Sugar  mill,  Cuba. 

bacco.  Many  cigars  and  cigarettes  are  made  in  that  city 
for  export.  Santiago  de  Cuba  is  also  a  large  city,  and  ex- 
ports iron  ore  and  copper. 

The  island  of  Haiti  includes  nearly  one  third  of  the  area 
of  the  chain,  and  consists  of  two  independent  negro  re- 
publics. Name  them.  Years  ago  Haiti  was  a  French 
colony,  and  a  form  of  the  French  language  is  used  by 
the  negro  inhabitants.  Santo  Domingo,  however,  was  a 
Spanish  colony,  and  the  Spanish  language  still  prevails 
in  that  part  of  the  island. 

Nearly  one  sixth  of  the  area  of  the  chain  belongs  to  ' 
Great  Britain.     Find  Jamaica,   Trinidad,   and  the  little 
island  of  Barbados.    They  are  by  far  the  most  important 
of  the  British  West  Indies.    Barbados  is  the  most  densely  * 
settled  island  of  the  whole  chain,  and  exports  much  sugar. 

Find  Guadelupe  and  Martinique.  They  are  French  pos- 
sessions, and  are  the  largest  islands  of  the  Lesser  AntillesA 
after  Trinidad. 

Several  small  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  belong  to 
the  European  kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  several  near  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  are 
part  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "  The  Story  of  Mexico,"  by  Susan  Hale ; 
"  The  Boy  Travellers  in  Mexico,"  by  Thos.  W.  Knox ;  "  A  Winter  in 
Central  America  and  Mexico,"  by  Helen  J.  Sanborn ;  "At  Last :  a  Christ- 
mas in  the  West  Indies,"  by  C.  Kingsley ;  chapters  42,  43,  and  44  of 
"  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader,  North  America."  Read  or  recite  a 
selection  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  30,  about  southern 
North  America. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  BULLETIN. 


REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA. 

Physical  Features.  The  Republic  of  Panama,  which  is  situated 
between  Costa  Rica  and  Colombia,  occupies  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama. It  lies  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  north,  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  the  south,  and  has  an  area  of  about  32,000 
square  miles,  being  almost  the  same  size  as  the  state  of  Maine. 

The  surface  is  mountainous,  the  Veragua  Range  attaining  its 
greatest  elevation  in  Mount  Chiriqui  (1126  feet)  in  the  extreme 


west.     The  largest  streams  are  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts. 
Chief  among  these  are  the  Tuira,  Chepo,  and  Chagres  rivers. 

The  Climate  is  tropical,  with  an  excessive  rainfall.  On  the 
northern  coast,  where  the  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant,  the  damp 
and  hot  climate  is  very  unhealthful.  On  the  higher  mountains 
and  on  the  south  coast  west  of  the  city  of  Panama  it  is  more 
healthful,  as  the  rainfall  is  less  and  the  temperature  lower. 

Resources  and  Industries.  Dense  forests  cover  most  of  the  country,  par- 
ticularly on  the  Atlantic  side.  Here  valuable  timber  and  dye  woods  are  ob- 
tained. Gold,  salt,  copper,  iron,  and  other  minerals  are  found.  Agriculture 
is  in  rather  a  backward  state,  but  some  attention  is  given  to  grazing  in  the 
western  parts.  The  chief  industries,  however,  are  those  which  are  centered 
about  the  partly  constructed  interoceanic  canal,  and  in  the  transport  of  foreign 
commerce  over  the  railroad  which  crosses  between  Panama  and  Colon. 

History  and  People.  The  region  was  explored  by  Balboa,  who  crossed  the 
isthmus  and  discovered  the  Pacific  in  1513.  In  1718  Darien  (Panama)  became 
a  part  of  the  Spanish  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada  (Colombia),  which  became 
independent  of  Spain  in  1819,  and  for  many  years  the  history  of  Panama  has 
been  identified  with  that  of  Colombia.  In  November,  1903,  the  department  of 
Panama  seceded  from  Colombia  and  declared  itself  an  independent  republic. 
The  new  government  was  almost  immediately  recognized  by  the  United  States, 
and  later  by  various  other  nations. 

Panama  has  a  population  of  about  285,000,  which  consists  mostly  of  a 
mixed  people  of  Spanish,  Indian,  and  Negro  origin.  Panama,  the  chief  city, 
with  a  population  of  30,000,  and  Colon,  are  the  largest  cities  and  are  impor- 
tant as  the  termini  of  both  the  railway  and  the  proposed  canal. 

The  Panama  Canal.  The  route  of  the  proposed  canal  follows  closely  that 
of  tho  Panama  Railway.  While  this  route  does  not  cross  the  isthmus  at  its 
narrowest  point,  other  considerations  made  its  selection  desirable ;  particu- 
larly the  low  altitude  of  the  watershed  at  this  point  (about  300  feet  above  sea 
level)  and  the  location  of  its  terminals,  one  at  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  side,  the 
other  at  Panama  on  the  Pacific,  both  of  which  possess  good  natural  harbors. 

The  first  attempt  to  cut  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  at  this  point  was  made  in 
1878,  by  a  French  company.  The  intention  was  to  cut  this  canal  through  at 
sea  level,  but  after  excavating  about  seven  miles  from  Colon,  and  elsewhere, 
the  company  failed  and  work  ceased.  Later  another  French  company  decided 
to  construct  a  canal  with  locks,  which  would  give  it  a  summit  level  of  98  feet 
above  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Work  on  this  project  has  been  in  operation  for 
several  years,  but  comparatively  little  advance  has  been  made  in  construction. 

According  to  the  plan  proposed  by  the  United  States  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission, the  length  of  the  canal  is  to  be  49  miles  ;  its  width  at  bottom,  150  feet ; 
its  depth,  35  feet ;  number  of  locks,  5  ;  height  of  summit  level,  82  to  90  feet ; 
estimated  time  of  transit,  12 hours;  estimated  cost  of  construction,  $144,000,- 
000  ;  acquiring  property,  etc.,  of  present  Panama  Canal  Company,  $40,000,000  ; 
total  cost,  $184,000,000;  estimated  time  required  to  complete,  10  years. 


REPUBLIC  OF  CUBA. 

Physical  Features.  Cuba  {see  reference  map  XXIV),  the  largest 
and  most  western  of  the  West  Indies,  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a 
length  of  720  miles  and  an  average  breadth  of  80  miles.  Its  area, 
including  1300  coast  islands,  is  nearly  46,000  square  miles— a 
little  larger  than  Pennsylvania.  The  irregular  coast  line  is  bor- 
dered by  coral  reefs.  From  the  lowland  of  the  coast  fertile 
meadows  and  plains  extend  inland  to  the  mountains.  The  gen- 
eral course  of  most  of  the  rivers  is  either  north  or  south. 

The  Climate  is  tropical,  but  is  considerably  cooled  by  the  ocean 
breezes.     In  the  mountain  districts  a  mild  atmosphere  prevails. 

There  are  two  seasons  in  the  year— a  wet  from  May  to  October, 
and  a  dry  during  our  winter.  Hurricanes  are  of  almost  yearly 
occurrence,  and  are  often  very  destructive.  Earthquakes  occur  in 
eastern  Cuba,  but  are  seldom  felt  in  the  western  parts. 

Resources  and  Industries.  The  soil  is  remarkably  rich  and  almost  inex- 
haustible. The  chief  products  are  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  coffee,  oranges,  ba- 
nanas, and  pineapples.  The  forests  cover  half  the  island.  Of  palms  there  are 
over  thirty  species.  Among  the  valuable  woods  are  mahogany,  lignum-vitas, 
ebony,  logwood,  and  the  fragrant  cedar  of  which  cigar  boxes  are  made. 

Rich  mines  of  copper  and  iron  are  worked  in  the  vicinity  of  Santiago. 
Near  Santa  Clara  is  a  large  bed  of  asphaltum.  Except  the  making  of  cigars, 
the  industries  of  Cuba  are  mainly  agriculture  and  the  trade  which  grows  out 
of  it,  and  there  are  no  mills  or  factories  of  importance.  Inland  commerce  is 
aided  by  about  2000  miles  of  railroad.  The  common  roads  are  mostly  little 
more  than  footpaths,  and  goods  are  carried  by  means  of  ox  carts  and  mules. 
The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  tobacco,  tropical  fruits,  molasses,  and  lum- 
ber. The  imports  are  chiefly  wheat  and  flour,  rice,  petroleum,  and  all  manu- 
factured articles. 

History  and  People.  Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  October  28,  1492, 
and  was  named  by  him  Juana.  Afterwards  it  was  known  by  several  different 
names,  but  finally  retained  the  title  Cuba,  which  the  natives  had  given  it 
before  the  discovery.  The  tyranny  of  the  Spanish  government  of  the  island 
incited  five  noted  rebellions  among  the  Cubans,  the  last — the  war  for  indepen- 
dence—beginning in  1895.  The  war  ended  with  the  victory  of  the  United 
States  over  Spain  in  1898,  followed  by  a  treaty  by  which  Spain  relinquished 
her  sovereignty  in  the  West  Indies,  and  Cuba  was  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  United  States,  which  transferred  its  control  to  the  Cubans  on  May  20, 
1902,  when  the  Republic  of  Cuba  was  proclaimed. 


A  large  sugar  plantation,  Cuba. 

The  census  of  1899  gave  the  population  as  1,572,797,  of  which  about  one 
third  were  colored.  The  inhabitants  embrace  three  classes  :  the  Creoles,  who 
form  the  better  class  of  native  Cubans ;  the  Negroes,  who  are  descended  from 
African  slaves  ;  and  the  native  Spaniards,  numbering  about  150,000. 

Cities.  Havana,  with  a  population  of  about  236,000,  is  the  capital  and 
largest  city.  Situated  on  a  broad  harbor  of  the  same  name,  it  is  picturesque 
by  location,  and  by  its  fine  public  buildings,  pleasure  grounds,  and  parks. 
Most  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  island  passes  through  this  port. 

Santiago  de-Cuba,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  island,  is  the  second  city  in 
size  and  importance.  It  has  a  population  of  about  43,000,  and  is  the  center  of 
trade  for  the  neighboring  iron  and  copper  mines.  Other  important  towns  are 
Matanzas,  Cienfuegos,  Puerto  Principe,  Cardenas,  Manzanillo,  and  Santa  Clara. 


100a 


GEOGRAPHICAL   BULLETIN. 


PORTO  RICO  AND  VIRGIN  ISLANDS. 

(See  reference  maps  XII,  XXIV.) 

Physical  Features.  Porto  Rico  is  the  smallest  of  the  four  large 
islands  of  the  Greater  Antilles.  The  most  eastern  of  the  group, 
this  island  is  1350  miles  in  direct  line  from  New  York.     Its  area 


Coffee  plantation,  Porto  Rico. 

is  3531  square  miles,  exclusive  of  the  small  islands  of  Vieques 
and  Culebra  to  the  east,  and  Mona  to  the  west,  which  belong  to 
Porto  Rico.     Its  average  length  is  95  miles ;  its  breadth,  35  miles. 

The  mountain  range  traversing  the  island  east,  and  west  is  little 
more  than  a  range  of  hills,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  about  3600 
feet  high.  From  these  hills,  covered  with  vegetation,  more  than 
1200  streams  flow  north  and  south  into  the  sea.  Many  of  them, 
especially  in  the  north,  are  rivers  of  considerable  size. 

The  Climate  is  tropical,  but  more  healthful  than  that  of  Cuba. 
The  average  temperature  during  the  summer  months  is  83° ;  during 
the  winter  months,  76°.  The  average  rainfall  is  about  59  inches  a 
year.  The  driest  month  is  February;  the  rainiest  is  November. 
Tropical  hurricanes  are  not  uncommon  between  July  and  October. 

Vegetation  and  Agriculture.  The  forests  have  been  extensively 
cleared,  but  there  still  remain  in  favorable  localities  many  trees  that 
are  valuable  for  lumber.  Among  these  are  mahogany,  cedar,  wal- 
nut, and  laurel.  Beautiful  flowering  trees  abound,  and  everywhere 
grow  cocoanut  palms,  tamarinds,  prickly  pears,  guavas,  mangoes, 
and  many  trees  and  shrubs  valuable  for  medicinal  qualities. 

The  hills  may  be  cultivated  to  their  very  tops.  Bananas  are  the 
most  common  and  profitable  product.  Oranges,  limes,  cocoanuts, 
and  pineapples  also  grow  in  great  abundance. 

Coffee  is  a  leading  product,  the  trees  thriving  best  on  the  hill- 
sides at  an  elevation  of  a  thousand  feet  or  more.  More  than 
34,000,000  pounds  of  coffee  are  produced  annually.  Sugar  cane  is 
grown  on  the  uplands,  yielding  about  140,000,000  pounds  of  sugar 
annually.  The  lowlands  produce  tobacco  to  the  extent  of  7,000,000 
pounds  a  year.  Rice  is  cultivated  on  the  hillsides,  and  is  the  main 
food  of  the  laboring  classes.     Indian  corn  is  native  to  the  island. 

Large  herds  of  cattle  are  pastured  on  the  lowlands,  and  many 
are  exported.  Horses  of  a  small  breed  are  also  raised.  Fowls 
are  abundant,  and  bee  keeping  produces  much  honey  for  export. 

Animal  Life  in  Porto  Rico  embraces  no  wild  animal  more  for- 
midable than  the  armadillo,  and  no  reptiles  that  are  poisonous.  In- 
sects thrive,  and  include  centipedes,  scorpions,  ticks,  and  mosquitoes. 

The  Mineral  Resources  of  the  island  are  not  extensive.  Copper, 
iron,  and  lead  exist,  but  not  in  paying  quantities.  Coal  has  been 
found,  and  salt  is  obtained  from  saline  lakes  near  the  seashore. 

Commerce.  A  railroad  around  the  island  has  been  planned,  and 
137  miles  of  it  are  in  operation.     Five  hundred  miles  of  telegraph 


lines  are  in  use.     Wagon  roads  are  much  better  than  in  Cuba,  and  "" 
a  fine  macadamized  highway  connects  San  Juan  and  Ponce. 

The  principal  harbors  are  those  of  San  Juan  and  Arecibo,  on  the 
north ;  Ponce,  Arroyo,  and  Guayanilla,  on  the  south.  The  chief 
exports  are  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  honey.  The  value  of  all 
exports  in  1895  was  $14,629,494. 

History.  Porto  Rico,  called  Borinquen  by  the  natives,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  November,  1493. 
In  1508  Ponce  de  Leon  visited  the  island,  was  charmed  with  its 
beauty  and  its  gentle,  hospitable  people,  and  soon '  after  founded 
the  city  of  San  Juan  Bautista,  where  he  built  his  palace.  The 
people,  who  numbered  over  500,000,  were  reduced  to  slavery,  and 
when  they  rebelled  the  Spaniards  swept  them  out  of  existence. 

The  island  was  afterwards  slowly  colonized  by  Spanish  immi- 
grants, who  were  compelled,  from  time  to  time,  to  defend  them- 
selves against  the  English  and  the  Dutch.  In  1870  Porto  Rico 
was  organized  as  a  province  with  seven  departments.  Slavery  had 
existed  from  the  first  settlement,  but  was  abolished  in  1873.  After 
the  Spanish-American  war  of  1898,  the  island  was  ceded  by  Spain 
to  the  United  States. 

People.     The  latest  census  showed  a  population  of  about  953,000, 
of  whom  more  than  364,000  are  negroes.     The  blacks  are  descended  ' 
from  former  slaves,  live  in  miserable  bamboo  huts,  and  have  little  ., 
disposition  to  work.     The  whites  are  mostly  of  Spanish  descent 
and  include  the  small  landowners  of  the  country  districts,  and  the 
still  higher  class  of  large  planters  and  traders. 

Education  has  made  little  advancement,  and  but  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  children  attend  the  five  hundred  schools  provided  for 
them.     There  are  a  few  secondary  schools  and  colleges,  under  the  „ 
control  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 


A  garden  in  Ponce,  Porto  Rico 


ous  by/its  stately  public  buildings,  presents  an  imposing  appearance,  situated »J 
as  it  is  on  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  West  Indies.'  The  private  dwellings 
are  mostly  of  one  story  and  are  flat-roofed.  The  city  is  provided  with  electric 
light,  gas,  and  ice  works,  and  there  are  small  factories  for  making  brooms,* 
matches,  and  soap.  The  population  is  about  32,000.  Ponce,  the  second  city, 
is  on  the  southern  coast.  It  has  an  ice  factory  and  gas  works,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  28,000.  Arecibo,  on  the  north  coast,  is  the  center  and  shipping' 
port  of  the  sugar  industry.  Mayaguez,  on  the  west  coast,  and  Aguadilla,  in 
the  northwest,  are  important  commercial  towns.  Fajardo,  on  the  east  coast, 
and  Arroyo,  in  the  southeast,  are  important  sugar-making  towns.    ' 

Virgin  Islands.  Besides  owning  Vieques  and  Culebra,  in  this  group,  which 
lfe  near  Porto  Rico,  the  United  States  has  been  negotiating  with  Denmark  for 
the  purchase  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John.  These  three  islands 
pave  an  area  of  138  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  33,000,  composed 
mostly  of  negroes  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane.  Christiansted, 
on  St.  Croix,  and  Charlotte  Amalie,  on  St.  Thomas,  are  the  chief  towns. 


100  J 


GEOGRAPHICAL   BULLETIN. 


THE  TERRITORY  0>-HAWAII. 

(See  reference  map  XXIII.) 

Physical  Features.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  lie  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  2500  miles  southwest  of  San  Francisco.  The  islands 
of  this  group  are  twelve  in  number,  and  the  chain  extends  in  an 
irregular  line  from  northwest  to  southeast,  between  about  18°  and 
23°  north  latitude.  The  area  of  the  seven  inhabited  islands  is 
G449  square  miles,  or  about  two  thirds  that  of  the  state  of  Ver- 
mont. The  largest  island,  Hawaii,  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
state  of  Connecticut ;  Oahu  is  half  as  large  as  Rhode  Island. 

The  whole  chain  consists  of  a  series  of  volcanoes,  all  now  ex- 
tinct, except  Mauna  Loa  and  Kilauea,  in  the  island  of  Hawaii. 
Mauna  Kea,  in  the  same  island,  has  an  altitude  of  13,805  feet. 
Nearly  all  the  islands  are  partly  surrounded  by  reefs,  and  the 
mountainous  surface  is  everywhere  broken  by  valleys  and  running 
streams,  but  there  are  no  rivers. 

Of  mineral  products  there  are  none  except  those  which  occur  in 
volcanic  regions,  such  as  sulphur,  copperas,  and  niter. 

The  Climate  is  warm,  the  air  is  pure  and  agreeable,  being  re- 
freshed by  the  northeast  trade  winds,  and  the  temperature,  seldom 
rising  above  88°,  is  made  equable  by  the  vast  surrounding  ocean. 
The  average  yearly  rainfall  is  about  50  inches,  although  in  the 
island  of  Hawaii  it  reaches  200  inches. 

Vegetation  and  Animals.  The  windward  mountain  slopes  and 
valleys  are  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  growth,  and  the  forests 
contain  much  valuable  timber.  The  more  useful  indigenous  trees 
and  plants  include  the  screw  pine,  the  cocoanut,  the  candlenut, 
used  for  lighting,  the  breadfruit,  the  banana,  and  the  wonderfully 
nutritive  taro,  the  principal  food  plant  of  the  natives. 

Pigs,  dogs,  and  rats  are  found,  but  have  been  introduced  by 
man.  There  are  snipes,  plovers,  ducks,  and  a  few  singing  birds. 
Imported  goats  and  cattle  have  increased  into  wild  herds.  The 
only  reptile  is  a  small  lizard. 

Industries.  As  yet  there  is  no  extensive  manufacturing,  and 
agriculture  is  the  main  occupation.  Sugar  cane  is  the  most  im- 
portant crop,  and  sugar  making  is  the  leading  industry.  Coffee, 
which  grows  on  the  elevated  lands,  is  the  next  important  product, 
and  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance.  Rice  is  raised  on  marshy 
fields  by  Chinamen. 


Hauling  sugar  cane  to  mill,  Oahu,  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  common  garden  vegetables,  peaches,  oranges,  pineapples, 
bananas,  the  guava  for  jelly— all  produce  abundantly.  The  tea 
plant,  and  the  ramie  and  the  tree-fern  pnlu,  both*  yielding  a  fine 
fiber  for  weaving  and  for  cushions,  have  been  successfully  intro- 
duced. There  are  large  sheep  farms,  and  the  wild  cattle  are  killed 
for  their  hides. 


100c 


Oahu  College  building,  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  of  great  commercial  importance  to  the 
United  States,  and  Honolulu  is  in  direct  line  of  vessels  plying  be- 
tween the  Pacific  coast  and  China,  Japan,  and  Australia. 

History.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  were  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1778,  and  by  him  were  named  Sandwich  Islands,  in  honor 
of  the  English  earl  of  that  name.  Cook  and  the  natives  were 
friendly  until  he  unintentionally  offended  against  their  religious 
customs,  when  they  killed  him,  in  1779.  In  1820  American  mission- 
aries began  their  labors  in  Oahu,  and  to  them  is  largely  due  the  rapid 
advance  in  civilizing  the  islands,  and  in  promoting  education. 

The  islands  were  governed  by  chiefs  and  monarchs  until  1893, 
when  the  queen  was  deposed,  and  the  group  was  formed  into  a 
republic.  In  1898  the  Hawaiian  republic  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1900  established  as  the  Territory  of  Hawaii. 

The  People,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  number  154,001. 
Of  this  total  about  one  sixth  are  Japanese ;  one  eighth  Chinese ; 
one  tenth  Portuguese ;  2000  British ;  and  over  3000  Americans, 
who  are  the  ruling  class.  The  natives,  called  Kanakas,  are  gentle, 
intelligent,  and  brave,  but,  owing  to  the  radical  change  in  their 
customs,  they  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  number. 

Cities  and  Towns.  Honolulu,  the  capital,  having  a  population  of  about 
39,000,  is  situated  on  a  plain  on  the  south  coast  of  Oahu.  The  harbor  is  more 
than  a  mile  long,  and  admits  the  largest  vessels.  The  city  contains  substan- 
tial government  buildings,  churches,  and  handsome  residences;  also  several 
planing  mills,  rice  mills,  and  iron  works. 

Hilo  has  about  20,000  inhabitants,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  island  of 
Hawaii,  and  is  next  to  Honolulu  in  importance.  On  the  west  side  of  the  same 
island  is  Kauhako,  near  the  place  where  Captain  Cook  was  killed,  and  where 
a  monument  stands  to  his  memory.  On  Maui,  the  most  important  town  is 
Lahaina  ;  and  Wailuku,  Kahului,  and  Spreckelsville  are  flourishing  villages. 

THE   PHILIPPINE-ISLANDS. 

(See  reference  map  XXIII.) 

Physical  Features.  The  Philippine  Islands  lie  east  of  Indo- 
China,  and  about  600  miles  southeast  of  China,  from  which  they 
are  separated  by  the  South  China  Sea.  The  most  northern  point 
in  the  group  is  in  about  the  latitude  of  southern  Cuba,  and  the 
most  southern  point  is  only  5£°  from  the  equator.  The  length  of 
the  archipelago  is  1000  miles  •  the  greatest  width  640  miles.  The 
land  area  is  over  114,000  square  miles. 

Various  estimates  have  placed  the  number  of  these  closely  packed 
islands  at  from  480  to  2000.  Luzon  and  Mindanao  include  more 
than  half  the  area  of  the  whole  group.  The  surface  is  generally 
broken  by  mountains  of  volcanic  origin.  There  are  many  water 
courses,  the  largest  rivers  being  the  Rio  Grande  in  Luzon  and  the 
Rio  Agusan  in  Mindanao,  each  of  which  is  over  200  miles  long. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  BULLETIN. 


The  Climate  is  purely  tropical,  with  three  seasons:  the  cold, 
with  a  temperature  of  77°  to  80°,  from  November  to  March ;  the 
hot,  from  March  to  July,  reaching  a  temperature  of  100° ;  and  the 
wet,  from  July  to  November,  during  which  torrents  of  rain  fall. 
Violent  hurricanes,  or  typhoons,  visit  the  northern  islands. 

The  Mineral  Resources  are  but  little  developed.  In  Luzon  are 
granite,  limestone,  and  marl.  Coal  has  been  found  in  Luzon,  Cebu, 
and  Negros.  Copper  is  abundant  in  Luzon,  where  also  is  excel- 
lent iron  ore.     Gold,  lead,  mercury,  and  sulphur  have  been  found. 

The  Forests  contain  a  variety  of  valuable  trees,  among  which 
are  cedar,  ebony,  ironwood,  logwood,  and  teak.  The  cocoanut 
palm  is  everywhere,  and  bamboos,  rattans,  mangoes,  jackfruit,  and 
all  Malayan  fruits  grow  in  abundance. 

Agriculture  is  the  prevailing  pursuit,  and  its  chief  products  are 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  and  the  famous  Manila  hemp,  a  fiber  obtained 
from  a  species  of  banana.  The  finest  sugar  is  produced  in  Panay ; 
and  the  total  yearly  export  of  sugar  is  250,000  tons. 

Coffee  grows  in  all  the  islands,  and  rice  is  the  common  food  of 
the  natives.  The  cacao  bean,  brought  from  Mexico,  and  Indian 
corn,  introduced  from  America,  with  cotton,  pepper,  ginger,  and 
vanilla,  are  other  products  of  importance. 

The  Wild  Animals  include  the  white  monkey,  deer,  wild  cat, 
alligator,  turtle,  boa,  python,  and  various  kinds  of  snakes,  of  which 
only  one  is  poisonous.  Of  birds  there  are  200  species,  and  there 
are  numerous  beautiful  butterflies  and  destructive  ants.  The 
wild  buffalo  is  tamed  and  is  the  beast  of  all  work.  Small  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  are  raised  in  large  herds  and  flocks. 

Manufacturing  by  machinery  has  never  been  developed,  but 
handicraft  is  carried  on  by  the  natives  with  skill  and  art.  They 
weave  cotton,  and  from  the  silken  fiber  of  the  piria  plant  make  the 
most  delicate  lace.  In  Manila  women  are  employed  in  making 
hats,  mats,  cigars,  and  cigar  cases. 


The  buffalo  is  the  beast  of  all  work. 


Commerce  within  the  islands  has  suffered  from  the  want  of  roads, 
and  there  is  but  one  railroad— that  in  Luzon,  123  miles  long. 
Foreign  commerce  centers  in  the  main  ports  where  export  prod- 
ucts are  gathered,  Manila  ranking  first. 


Street  scene  in  Manila. 

People.  Most  of  the  population  is  of  Malay  descent,  embracing 
the  Tagals  of  Luzon  and  the  Visayans  occupying  several  islands 
south  of  Luzon.  Both  of  these  classes  adhere  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Another  class  of  Malays  is  the  piratical  Moros, 
who  are  Mohammedans.  A  few  woolly-haired  Negritos,  descended 
from  the  original  inhabitants ;  very  many  distinct  and  nearly 
savage  tribes  inhabiting  different  islands ;  over  30,000  Chinese, 
with  numerous  mestizos ;  and  about  20,000  pure  Spanish,  mostly  iu 
Manila— all  together  make  up  a  population  estimated  at  7,000,000. 
The  number  of  dialects  spoken  is  said  to  be  about  500. 

History.  The  discovery  of  the  Philippines  is  due  to  Magellan,  who  on  the 
first  voyage  by  white  men  across  the  Pacific,  in  1521,  landed  at  Cebu.  Here 
he  joined  the  friendly  ruler  in  an  attack  upon  his  enemies,  and  was  killed. 

For  nearly  400  years  the  Philippines  were  subject  to  Spain.  Growing  dis- 
content under  the  tyranny  and  oppressive  taxation  of  Spanish  rule  incited  the 
more  civilized  natives  to  insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  1896.  During  the 
war  between  Spain  and  the  United  States,  in  1898,  Admiral  Dewey  destroyed 
the  Spanish  fleet  in  Manila  Bay,  and  upon  the  conclusion  of  the  war  the  entire 
group  of  islands  was  ceded  to  the  United  States. 

Cities.  Manila,  the  capital,  is  a  walled  city  of  350,000  inhabitants,  situated 
on  a  large  bay  of  the  same  name.  It  is  the  main  port  for  foreign  commerce, 
and  has  many  modern  improvements,  including  paved  streets  and  electric  lights. 
Cavite,  15  miles  from  Manila,  is  a  naval  and  military  station.  Iloilo,  in  the  island 
of  Panay,  is  the  second  city  of  importance,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  sugar.  Cebu, 
capital  of  the  island  Cebu,  is  a  well-built  city  of  35,000  people.  Several  other 
cities  and  towns  have  populations  ranging  from  1000  to  20,000  each. 

GUAM  (see  reference  map  XXIII)  is  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the 
Ladrones,  discovered  by  Magellan  on  his  famous  voyage,  and  so  named  on 
account  of  the  thieving  habits  of  the  natives  (ladrones  is  Spanish  for  ' '  thieves"). 
These  natives,  enslaved  and  oppressed  by  the  Spaniards,  were  finally  exter- 
minated, and  were  succeeded  by  immigrants  from  Mexico  and  the  Philippines. 
Guam  is  important  only  as  a  naval  and  coaling  station. 

WAKE  ISLAND  (see  reference  map  XXI)  is  an  atoll  in  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  between  Guam  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  It  has  no  inhabitants,  and 
was  seized  by  the  United  States  in  1899. 

TUTUILA  (see  reference  map  XXIII)  is  one  of  the  three  largest  of  a  group 
known  as  the  Samoa  Islands ;  it  is  about  18  miles  long,  and  6  miles  wide,  and 
lies  about  14°  south  of  the  equator  and  nearly  3000  miles  east  of  northern 
Australia.  The  natives  are  noted  for  their  strength,  bravery,  and  intelligence. 
For  several  years  the  Samoa  Islands  were  governed  by  their  own  king,  under 
the  joint  control  of  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  By  a  re- 
cent treaty  Great  Britain  relinquished  her  claim,  and  Tutuila  and  several 
other  islands  were  ceded  to  the  United  States.  The  excellent  harbor  of  Pago 
Pago  is  occupied  as  a  naval  and  coaling  station. 


) 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  NAMES. 


Aguadilla,  a-wa-theTya 
Antilles,  an-tll'lez 
Arecibo,  a-ra-se'bo 
Arroyo,  ar-ro'yo 
Cavite,  ka-ve-ta' 
Cebu,  tha-bu' 
Cienfuegos,  se-Sn-fwa'gos 
Culebra,  ku-lS'bra 
Fajardo,  ffi-har'do 
Guam,  gwam 
Guayanilla,  gwi-a-nel'ya 


Havana,  ha-van'a 
Hawaii,  ha-wi'e 
Hilo,  he'lo 
Holguin,  hol-gen' 
Honolulu,  ho-no-lu'lu 
Iloilo,  e-16-e'lo 
Juana,  hwa'na 
Kabul ii i,  ka-hu-lu'e 
Kauhako,  kou-ha'ko 
Kilauea,  ke-lou-a'a 
Ladrones,  la-dronz' 


Lahaina,  la-hi'na 
Luzon,  lu-zon' 
Manila,  ma-ne'la 
Manzanillo,  man-sa-nel'yo 
Matanzas,  ma-tan'zas 
Maui,  mou'e 

Mauna  Kea,  mou'na  ka'a 
Mauna  Loa,  mou'na  16'a 
Mayaguez,  mi-a-hweV 
Mindanao,  men-da-na'6 
Mona,  mo'na 

100<7 


Moro,  md'ro 
Negrito,  ne-gri'to 
Negros,  na'gros 
Oahu,  6-a'hu 
Panay,  pa-ni' 
Philippines,  ffl'Ip-Inz 
Pinar  del  Rio,  pe-nar'  d61  re'6 
Ponce,  pon'tha 
Porto  Bico,  por'to  re'eo 
Puerto  Principe, pwer'topren'- 
se-pa 


Rio  Agusan,  re'o  a-gu-san' 
Rio  Grande,  re'6  gran 'da 
Samoa,  sa-mo'a 
San  Juan,  san  hu-an' 
Santa  Clara,  san'ta  kla'ra 
Santiago,  san-te-a'go 
Tagal,  ta-gal' 
Tutuila,  tu-tu-e'la 
Vieques,  ve-5'kSs 
Visayan,  vS-si'an 
Wailuku,  wi-lu'ku 


CORRELATIONS  AND  COMPARISONS. 


Size.  Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  North  America 
extend?  Through  how  many  degrees  of  longitude?  When  it  is  mid- 
night in  the  Pribilof  Islands,  what  time  is  it  in  eastern  Greenland;  in 
Newfoundland  ? 

Coast.  Name  the  chief  seas  and  bays  of  the  grand  division;  the  chief 
peninsulas;  the  chief  islands.  Compare  Greenland  and  Cuba  in  size;  in 
surface ;  in  climate.  Compare  Newfoundland  and  Vancouver.  Compare 
Florida  and  Lower  California  in  position;  in  latitude;  in  climate;  in 
formation.  Compare  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Compare 
the  Chesapeake  and  San  Francisco  bays.  Where  are  there  low,  sandy 
coasts  in  North  America?  Name  a  cape  on  such  a  coast,  and  explain 
the  formation  of  bars  and  sandy  hooks. 

Surface.  Name  the  chief  mountain  ranges  of  eastern  and  western 
North  America,  giving  the  direction,  the  general  height,  the  forma- 
tion, and  the  comparative  age  of  each  system.  Name  some  mountains 
with  jagged  tops;  some  with  smooth  and  level  tops.  Name  and  describe 
the  chief  plateaus  of  North  America.  Name  and  describe  the  lowlands. 
Where  are  there  vaEeys  between  mountain  ranges;  gaps  across  moun- 
tain ranges? 

Drainage.  Name  some  of  the  most  noted  springs  of  North  America, 
telling  about  their  appearance,  temperature,  and  use.  How  are  these 
classes  of  springs  formed?  Name  some  noted  caves  of  North  America. 
How  are  caves  often  formed?  Name  the  chief  lakes.  How  are  lakes 
formed?  Where  are  streams  generally  rapid?  Why?  Where  are 
streams  sluggish?  Why?  Why  are  some  streams  rapid  in  some  parts 
and  sluggish  in  other  parts?  Name  some  rivers  which  have  built  deltas, 
and  explain  delta  formation.  Name  some  which  flow  into  estuaries,  and 
give  the  history  of  estuary  formation.  Name  some  rivers  whose  mouths 
are  obstructed  by  bars.  How  are  such  obstructions  formed?  Name 
some  rivers  which  have  cut  canyons,  and  explain  the  formation  of  can- 
yons. Name  some  which  meander  through  flood  plains,  and  describe 
flood  plain  formation.  Name  some  rivers  which  are  obstructed  by  falls. 
How  are  some  falls  formed?  Where  are  there  rivers  which  decrease  as 
they  advance?  Why?  Name  some  rivers  useful  to  commerce;  some 
which  have  no  commercial  usefulness.  Name  some  high  divides;  some 
low  divides. 

Soil.  Name  the  unproductive  regions  of  North  America.  Which  are 
so  because  the  soil  is  too  cold;  too  dry;  too  swampy?  Where  has  the 
presence  of  glaciers  made  the  soil  more  fertile?  How?  Less  fertile? 
How?  Where  are  there  alluvial  plains;  sandy  plains;  old  lake  beds; 
soil  incrusted  with  salt?    Why?    What  lands  are  artificially  irrigated? 

Rock  Formations.  Explain  the  formation  of  the  Tidewater  region 
of  eastern  North  America ;  of  the  Piedmont  region.  In  what  region  are 
there  mountain  folds?  In  what  region  are  there  tilted  strata?  In  what 
region  are  there  many  veins  containing  mineral  deposits?  Describe 
the  formation  of  such  a  vein.  In  what  western  region  are  there  great 
outflows  of  lava?  What  is  a  lava  bed?  Where  are  there  volcanoes  in 
North  America?  Describe  volcano  formation.  What  proofs  of  former 
glacial  action  are  found  in  North  America?  What  proofs  are  found  of 
the  power  of  wind  in  influencing  land  forms?  Where  are  there  coal  de- 
posits? Describe  the  formation  of  coal;  of  peat.  Which  of  the  West 
Indies  are  coral  islands?  How  are  such  islands  formed?  How  may 
coral  polyps  aid  in  the  growth  of  the  mainland?  Where  are  there  some 
islands  of  volcanic  formation  near  North  America? 

Climate.  Locate  the  heat  belts  of  North  America  in  summer;  in 
winter.  Describe  the  temperature  in  five  climatic  belts  or  regions. 
Where  are  the  greatest  differences  of  climate  owing  to  latitude?  How 
long  does  freezing  weather  last  in  several  regions?  Describe  the  circu- 
lation of  air  over  North  America;  the  distribution  of  moisture.  Show 
by  examples  how  climate  may  be  affected  by  elevations  of  land;  by  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water;  how  climate  may  affect  products  and  occu- 
pations. Describe  the  progress  of  a  cyclone  across  North  America:  its 
path,  its  direction  of  rotation,  and  the  weather  produced  by  its  different 
parts.  Where  are  there  snow-capped  mountains;  mountain  glaciers; 
continental  glaciers? 


Life.  What  are  the  three  life  regions  of  North  America?  Which  is 
the  largest?  Give  reasons  for  the  existence  of  these  regions.  How  have 
the  plants  and  animals  of  these  regions  adapted  themselves  to  their  sur- 
roundings? Where  are  there  few  life  forms?  Why?  Where  are  there 
few  large~*CTM  animals?  Why?  Give  some  uses  to  which  the  native 
plants  and  animals  of  North  America  are  put. 

People.  In  what  parts  of  North  America  do  people  of  the  black  race 
chiefly  live?  What  part  of  the  population  do  they  form?  In  what 
countries  are  they  chiefly  found?  Tell  what  you  know  of  their  his- 
tory. What  types  of  the  yellow  race  are  found  in  North  America? 
In  what  part  is  each  type  found?  Which  of  them  was  found  here  by 
the  first  white  discoverers?  What  two  peoples  are  included  in  this 
type?  How  do  the  Eskimos  live?  To  what  stage  of  progress  have 
they  attained?  Where  are  they  found?  Where  do  the  Indians  chiefly 
live?  What  stages  of  progress  have  they  reached?  Where  were  they 
most  advanced  when  America  was  discovered?  Where  have  they  most 
freely  mingled  with  the  whites?  How  numerous  is  this  mixed  race? 
Where  have  the  Indians  remained  largely  separate  from  the  whites? 
Tell  where  and  how  some  of  the  tribes  live.  What  people  of  the  white 
race  chiefly  inhabit  North  America?  What  nations  early  settled  there? 
Why?  From  what  nations  do  immigrants  now  come?  Why?  What 
parts  of  North  America  are  most  densely  populated;  least  densely? 
Why?  Try  to  explain  the  existence  of  the  detached  regions  of 
moderately  dense  population.  Has  North  America  its  proportionate 
share  of  the  world's  population?  What  nations  occupy  the  grand  di- 
vision? Tell  what  you  know  of  the  history  of  these  nations.  What  is 
their  prevailing  form  of  government?  What  other  forms  of  government 
do  you  know?  Describe  each.  What  parts  of  North  America  belong  to 
European  nations?  Describe  the  government  of  one  of  these.  Name 
the  republics  of  North  America.  Describe  the  government  of  the  chief 
of  these.  What  religion  prevails  in  North  America?  What  are  the 
other  chief  religions  of  the  world?  What  languages  are  spoken  in  North 
America?  In  what  parts  is  each  spoken?  In  what  parts  of  the  grand 
division  is  education  most  general?  Name  some  important  educa- 
tional institutions. 

Industries.  How  does  the  United  States  rank  in  each  of  the  seven 
great  industries?  What  are  the  chief  industries  of  British  America;  of 
Danish  America;  of  Mexico  and  Central  America;  of  the  West  Indies? 

Locate  the  chief  agricultural  regions  of  North  America;  describe  the 
soil  of  each.  How  does  agriculture  depend  upon  climate?  What  is 
irrigation?  Where  is  it  practiced?  Define  fertilizers;  rotation  of  crops. 
Tell  where  each  of  the  following  is  grown,  and  what  are  the  advantages 
of  the  regions  where  it  thrives:  wheat,  corn,  rice,  hay,  oranges,  sugar 
cane,  cacao,  tobacco,  cotton.     Which  of  these  are  foods? 

In  what  regions  of  North  America  are  these  animals  raised:  cattle; 
hogs;  sheep;  horses?  Give  the  chief  uses  of  each,  and  tell  where  they 
are  best  raised.  Where  are  there  fur-bearing  animals?  In  what  waters 
are  obtained  fish;  coral;  sponges? 

Where  are  there  dense  forests;  open  forests;  oak,  cottonwood,  pine, 
cedar,  cypress,  mahogany,  redwood? 

What  regions  yield  anthracite  coal,  bituminous  coal;  petroleum, 
natural  gas;  iron,  copper,  gold,  silver;  marble?  How  are  some  of 
these  formed?     How  are  some  obtained?     How  are  some  used? 

Where  are  the  great  manufacturing  regions  of  North  America?  Where 
are  these  articles  made :  cotton  goods,  woolen  goods,  clothing,  silk  goods, 
boots  and  shoes ;  lumber,  rubber  goods,  pitch  and  rosin ;  steel  ships,  iron 
and  steel,  glass,  cutlery,  pottery,  kerosene ;  butter  and  cheese,  packed 
meat,  canned  fruit,  canned  fish,  refined  sugar,  flour,  tobacco? 

Tell  the  chief  trade  advantages  of  each  country  of  North  America^ 
Make  a  list  of  the  chief  trade  centers,  and  tell  the  advantages  of  each. 
Show  that  surface  forms  affect  railroad  routes.  Point  out  some  im- 
portant canals  and  tell  their  uses. 

Make  a  list  of  the  capital  cities  in  North  America.  Describe  one  capi- 
tal. What  is  a  capital?  Make  a  fist  of  the  large  cities  of  North  America 
about  which  you  know  some  historic  associations;  about  which  you  can 
tell  the  reason  for  their  positions  or  importance.  What  are  the  parts  of 
a  city;  its  uses? 


101 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Location,  Extent,  and  Coast  Features.  In  what  part  of  the  conti- 
nental plateau  is  South  America?  (map,  p.  8.)  What  is  its  direction 
from  North  America;  from  Africa;  from  Australia?  What  part  of 
South  America  is  in  tne  same  longitude  as  Florida ;  as  Newfoundland  ; 
as  Greenland  ?  In  what  zones  does  it  lie  ?  What  waters  surround  it  ? 
How  does  it  rank  among  the  grand  divisions  in  size  ?  (p.  157.)  Is 
the  coast  Of  South  America  more  or  less  indented  than  that  of  North 
America  ?  On  which  coast  are  the  great  estuary  bays  ?  Name  the  capes 
at  the  four  extremities  of  South  America.  Near  what  part  of  the  coast 
are  there  many  islands  ?  What  large  island  is  south  of  South  America  ? 
By  what  strait  is  it  separated  from  the  mainland?  Is  the  submerged 
part  of  the  continental  plateau  wider  off  the  east  or  off  the  west  coast  ? 

Surface.  Review  the  lesson  on  the  highlands  and  lowlands  of  the 
world  (p.  10).  Where  is  the  great  highland  region  of  South  America? 
Compare  it  with  that  of  North  America  in  length ;  in  width  ;  in  nearness 
to  the  coast;  in  general  direction.  What  plateaus  are  in  the  eastern 
part  of  South  America  ?  Compare  them  with  the  eastern  highlands  of 
North  America  in  size  and  position.  Compare  the  great  lowland  of  South 
America  with  that  of  North  America  in  position ;  in  size.  Which  has 
the  greater  area  lower  than  1,000  feet  elevation  ? 

The  Andes  Mountains  are  much  loftier  than  the  ranges 
of  the  North  American  highland,  and  are  much  less  broken. 
They  follow  the  north  and  west  coasts  as  a  continuous  wall, 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  island  of  Trinidad  nearly  to  the 
Strait  of  Magellan.  Except  near  the  extremities  there  are 
few  passes  across  the  chain  less  than  two  miles  high,  while 
many  of  the  peaks  are  four  miles  in  height,  and  are  the 
highest  in  America.  Even  in  the  torrid  zone  these  lofty 
peaks  always  bear  snow  and  glaciers  near  their  summits, 
and  in  the  south  glaciers  descend  to  the  sea. 

Thirty  or  forty  active  volcanoes  occur  along  the  Andes, 
and  many  of  the  high  peaks  are  huge  volcanic  cones.  Se- 
vere earthquakes  are  common  throughout  the  chain,  and 
sometimes  cause  great  loss  of  life.  On  the  west  slopes  of 
the  Andes  are  many  terraces  and  shell  deposits  high  above 
present  sea  level,  marking  old  positions  of  the  sea  beach. 
What  movement  of  the  earth's  crust  is  probably  occurring 
in  this  region  ! 


Andes  Mountains. 

In  the  north  the  Andes  consist  of  three  ranges  separated  by  long 
river  valleys.  Near  the  equator  they  narrow  to  a  single  high  range. 
South  of  the  equator  the  highland  widens  and  is  bordered  by  two 
lofty  ranges,  which  form  the  rims  of  the  highest  plateau  on  the  con- 
tinent. What  is  its  name  ?  It  is  about  1\  miles  high.  South  of  the 
plateau  of  Bolivia  the  Andes  extend  as  a  single  great  range  to  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  but  in  the  south  they  are  cut  entirely  through  in  several 
places  by  the  deep  valleys  of  streams  flowing  into  the  Pacific.  This 
great  range  is  bordered  on  the  west  by  a  much  lower  and  more  broken 
range  close  along  the  coast. 

The  northern  part  of  the  plateau  of  Bolivia  is  extremely  rugged,  and  is 
traversed  by  deep  valleys  draining  northwardly.  The  southern  part  is 
smoother,  for  it  was  once  the  bed  of  a  series  of  great  lakes  which  covered 
much  of  the  region  between  the  bordering  ranges,  when  the  climate  was 
moister  than  it  is  at  present.  As  the  climate  changed,  the  lakes  shrunk 
in  size  or  disappeared  entirely,  leaving  terraces,  or  old  beach  lines,  to 
mark  their  former  limits.  What  is  the  largest  remnant  of  these  former 
lakes  ?  It  is  about  half  as  large  as  Lake  Ontario.  What  North  Ameri- 
can lake  has  had  a  history  similar  to  that  of  Lake  Titicaca  ? 

The  Brazilian  plateau  is  much  lower  than  the  Andean 
highland.  Its  general  height  is  less  than  half  a  mile. 
Much  of  its  surface  is  quite  level,  but  there  are  numerous 
rugged  divides  and  several  mountain  ranges,  with  at  least 
one  peak  two  miles  high.  The  plateau  slopes  abruptly  in 
the  east  to  a  narrow  coast  plain,  but  inland  it  merges 
gradually  into  the  great  central  lowland.  In  what  direc- 
tion does  the  highland  of  Guiana  extend?  The  eastern 
highlands  of  South  America,  like  those  of  North  America, 
are  much  older  than  the  western  highlands. 


103 


104 


PARTS   OF   THE  EARTH. 


Between  the  highland  regions,  extending  the  entire  length 
of  the  grand  division,  and  from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic, 
is  a  vast  lowland  plain.  Low  divides  extend  across  this 
lowland  from  the  Andes  to  the  eastern  highlands,  separat- 
ing its  surface  into  a  northern,  a  central,  and  a  southern 
slope.  In  what  general  direction  does  each  descend  ?  The 
slopes,  however,  are  so  gradual  and  the  divides  so  low  that 
they  are  quite  imperceptible,  and  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  nearly  the  whole  region  are  its  flatness  and  its 
slight  elevation  above  sea  level. 

There  are  very  few  old,  hard  rocks  exposed  on  the  level  surface  of 
this  lowland,  which  is  mostly  covered  with  a  fine  clayey  soil.  Many  peo- 
ple believe  that  much  of  this  region 
was  formed  beneath  a  shallow  sea 
by  sediment  worn  from  the  adjacent 
highlands,  and  was  upheaved  in  com- 
paratively recent  times,  like  the  Tide- 
water region  of  our  Atlantic  coast. 
Parts  of  the  region,  especially  in  the 
south,  are  still  rising,  but  parts  of 
the  northeastern  and  southeastern 
coasts  are  thought  to  be  now  sinking. 

Climate.  Review  the  lesson  on 
the  heat  belts  (pp.  24,  25).  What 
part  of  South  America  is  always  hot  ? 
What  part  has  temperate  winters 
and  hot  summers?  What  parts  are 
always  temperate?  Mention  some 
part  of  South  America  that  is  al- 
ways cold.  Mention  a  South  Ameri- 
can winter  month.  Review  the  les- 
sons on  winds  and  rainfall  (pp.  26, 
27).     What  winds  prevail  over  the 

northern  part  of  South  America  ;  over  the  southern  part  ?  Over  what 
part  of  South  America  does  the  equatorial  rain  belt  lie  in  January? 
Where  does  it  lie  iu  July  ?  Where  do  the  tropical  calms  cross  South 
America?  What  parts  of  South  America  have  heavy  or  moderately 
heavy  rainfall?  Why?  What  parts  have  light  rains  or  little  or  no 
rain?  Why?  In  which  half  of  the  year  do  you  think  that  most  of 
the  rain  falls  in  South  America  ?    Why  ? 

There  is  comparatively  little  difference  between  the 
temperatures  of  winter  and  summer  in  South  America. 
Most  of  the  lowlands  are  always  hot ;  in  the  extreme  south 
they  are  stormy,  chilly,  and  disagreeable,  but  seldom  very 
cold ;  the  elevated  plateaus  of  the  Andes  are  always  tem- 
perate, and  the  higher  summits  of  this  chain  always  cold. 
It  is  only  in  a  comparatively  narrow  central  belt  that 
there  is  a  notable  difference  between  the  temperatures 
of  summer  and  winter,  and  in  this  region  the  winters 
are  seldom  cold  enough  for  the  formation  of  ice. 

The  most  plainly  marked  seasons  are  the  wet  and  the 
dry,  and  they  are  determined  by  the  position  of  the  equa- 
torial rain  belt, 

In  our  summer  the  rain  belt  lies  north  of  the  equator,  and  at  this 
season  there  is  generally  least  rain  in  South  America.  As  the  rain  belt 
sweeps  southward  in  our  fall  and  winter,  and  northward  again  in  our 
spring,  it  yields  the  heavy  daily  rains  which  make  the  rainy  season.  At 
all  times  the  southeast  or  the  northeast  trades  blow  far  inland  and  dis- 
charge heavy  rains  wherever  they  are  forced  to  rise.  Hence  the  east 
slope  of  the  Andes  in  the  torrid  zone  is  one  of  the  rainiest  regions  in  the 
world.  The  Pacific  slope,  however,  south  of  the  rain  belt,  receives  only 
the  winds  which  have  lost  their  moisture  on  the  east  slope,  and  there- 
fore this  region  is  one  of  the  driest  in  the  world.    In  the  south,  where 


westerly  winds  prevail,  the  west  slope  receives  a  heavy  rainfall,  while 
the  region  east  of  the  mountains  is  quite  dry. 

Drainage.  Trace  the  continental  divide  of  South  America.  Trace 
the  divides  of  five  river  basins  which  together  embrace  nearly  all 
of  the  Atlantic  slope,  except  its  southern  extremity.  Which  of  these 
basins  is  largest  ?  How  does  the  Amazon  basin  compare  in  size  with  the 
largest  river  basin  in  North  America  ?  Compare  these  basins  in  amount 
of  rainfall,  and  number  of  tributary  streams.  From  these  comparisons 
do  you  think  the  Mississippi-Missouri  or  the  Amazon  is  the  larger 
stream  ?  What  is  the  next  largest  river  basin  of  South  America  ?  Com- 
pare it  with  the  Mississippi  basin  in  size  and  rainfall.  Do  you  think  the 
Mississippi  or  the  Plata  discharges  more  water  into  the  sea  ?  Name  and 
locate  the  three  other  great  basins  of  South  America.  How  do  you  think 
they  compare  with  the  Yukon  or  the  Colorado  River  in  the  amount  of 

water  they  carry  ?  Why  ?  Why  are 
there  no  long  rivers  on  the  Pacific 
slope  of  South  America  ? 

The  enormous  amount  of 
rain  which  falls  on  the  Atlan- 
tic slope  of  South  America 
gives  to  it  some  of  the  great- 
est rivers  in  the  world.  The 
Amazon,  while  not  so  long  as 
the  Mississippi-Missouri,  has 
a  larger  basin  and  discharges 
much  more  water  into  the 
ocean.  It  is  much  the  largest 
river  in  the  world. 

The  great  river  is  several  miles 
wide  and  is  deep  enough  for  the 
largest  ocean  steamers  for  more 
than  a  thousand  miles  above  its  mouth;  large  steamboats  can  ascend 
to  the  very  foot  of  the  Andes.  When  the  river  is  flooded  after  the 
rainy  seasons,  it  spreads  out  over  the  flat  lowland  to  a  much  greater 
width,  and  it  has  built  up  a  very  wide  flood  plain,  which  is  traversed 
by  many  broad,  deep  bayous.  Name  the  two  largest  tributaries  from 
the  north.  Count  the  large  tributaries  from  the  south.  Name  the  largest. 
Find  the  Tocantins  River.  What  is  its  estuary  called  ?  By  what  is 
it  separated  from  the  main  estuary  of  the  Amazon  ?  As  it  is  thus 
separated,  the  Tocantins-Para  River  is  sometimes  not  included  in  the 
Amazon  system,  though  its  estuary  is  connected  with  the  Amazon  and 
is  always  used  by  steamers  ascending  that  river  from  the  ocean.  The 
main  Amazon  estuary,  north  of  Marajo  Island,  is  filled  with  rocky 
islands  and  is  quite  shallow  near  its  mouth.    Why?    No  well-marked 


On  the  lower  Orinoco  River,  Venezuela 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


105 


Falls  on  the  Sao  Francisco,  Brazil. 

delta  is  formed  at  these  great  river  mouths,  because  the  eoast  region 
here  is  sinking  quite  rapidly,  and  because  strong  currents  sweep  much 
of  the  sediment  away. 

The  Plata  River,  or  Rio  de  la  Plata,  is  really  a  great 
estuary  formed  by  the  submergence  of  a  river  valley. 
"What  two  tributaries  has  it?  Name  the  largest  streams 
of  the  Parana  system.  The  Plata  basin  is  nearly  as 
large  as  that  of  the  Mississippi,  and  it  discharges  a  much 
greater  volume  of  water.  The  Parana  is  navigable  for 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  above  its  mouth,  but  the 
sediment  it  brings  down  has  nearly  filled  much  of  the 
Plata  estuary. 

The  basin  of  the  Orinoco  is  not  so  large  as  that  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  but  the  amount  of  water  discharged  is  almost 
as  great  as  that  of  the  Mississippi.  What  are  its  lowlands 
called  ?  The  Orinoco  is  more  than  a  mile  wide,  and  is  navi- 
gable throughout  most  of  its  course  in  the  lowlands.  After 
the  rainy  season,  which  here  occurs  in  the  early  summer, 
its  floods  convert  much  of  the  llanos  into  a  great  shallow 
lake.  This  river  has  a  delta  larger 
than  the  state  of   New   Jersey. 


The  Sao  Francisco  and  the  Magdalena 
have  basins  which  together  are  not  half 
so  extensive  as  that  of  the  Mackenzie,  but 
they  are  much  larger  rivers.  The  Mag- 
dalena is  a  great  commercial  route  far 
into  the  mountains.  The  lower  course 
of  the  Sao  Francisco  is  broken  by  falls 
by  which  it  descends  from  the  highlands, 
but  its  upper  course  is  navigable  for  long 
distances. 

The  rivers  in  the  'southern  part  of  the 
Atlantic  slope  contain  very  little  water 
during  much  of  the  year.  Why  ?  Many 
short  mountain  streams  fed  by  the  melt- 
ing snow  descend  the  west  slope  of  the 
Andes,  but  few  of  them  reach  the  sea. 
The  water  is  used  for  irrigation  in  that 
dry  region  or  it  evaporates  before  it 
reaches  the  coast. 

Compare  North  and  South  America  as 
to  the  number  of  lakes.  You  have  learned 
why  North  America  has  so  many  lakes. 
What  do  you  suppose  is  the  reason  that 
South  America  has  so  few  ? 


The.silvas,  Brazil. 


TOPICS  ON  THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

I.  Western  Highlands.  Length.  Height.  Evidences  of  up- 
heaval. Parts:  northern — ranges,  climate ;  central  —  ranges,  plateau, 
climate  ;  southern  —  ranges,  climate.    Passes.    Glaciers. 

II.  Eastern  Highlands.  Brazilian :  height ;  surface ;  slopes ;  age ; 
climate.    Guiana:  height;  direction;  age;  climate. 

III.  Lowlands.  Surface.  Slopes.  Divides.  Formation.  Climate. 
Rivers :  length  ;  volume ;  mouths. 

IV.  Coasts.    Bays  and  estuaries.    Capes.    Islands.    Movements. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  a  circle  to  represent  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, and  in  it  make  a  sketch  map  of  North  and  South  America,  put- 
ting in  the  chief  rivers  and  mountains.  Model  South  America.  Write 
a  comparison  between  the  northern  and  southern  coasts  of  South  Amer- 
ica in  regard  to  temperature  and  rainfall  in  winter  and  in  summer. 


VEGETATION  AND  ANIMALS. 

Eeview  the  lesson  on  distribution  of  life  (pp.  28-29).  What  parts  of 
South  America  have  dense  forests  ?  Why  ?  What  part  has  more  open 
forests?  Why?  Where  are  there  open  grassy  regions ?  Why?  Where 
is  the  desert  region  ?  Why  ?  Review  the  lesson  on  the  South  American 
region  (p.  30),  and  mention  some  of  its  characteristic  plants  and  animals. 

Vegetation.  The  equatorial  forests  of  South  America, 
called  silvas  in  the  Amazon  valley,  are  among  the  densest 
and  most  extensive  in  the  world.  Even  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  the  grand  division  the  forests  are  quite  dense 
and  the  foliage  is  mostly  evergreen. 

In  the  east  are  many  nearly  treeless  savannas  and  catnpos,  but  in  the 
central  silvas,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavier  and  more  continuous,  the 
damp  and  gloomy  forests  are  almost  unbroken  for  hundreds  of  miles. 
They  are  so  dense,  and  in  many  parts  so  swampy,  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible for  men  to  traverse  them  except  on  the  rivers  and  numerous  bay- 
ous. Describe  the  character  of  these  forests  (p.  28).  India  rubber  and 
other  gums,  cabinet  and  dye  woods,  Brazil  and  cocoa  nuts,  vanilla  and 
cacao  beans,  and  Peruvian  bark,  sarsaparilla,  ipecac,  and  other  medi- 
cines, are  among  the  useful  products  of  these  forests. 

In  the  southwestern  forests  peculiar  kinds  of  cedars,  pines,  oaks, 
and  laurels  are  abundant  and  valuable. 

The  plains  of  the  Orinoco  val- 
ley, called  llanos,  are  treeless  ex- 
cept for  palms  and  mimosas  which 
fringe  the  streams  and  crown  the 
low  hills.  During  the  rainy  sea- 
son the  region  is  covered  with 
grasses,  and  affords  fine  pasturage, 
but  in  the  dry  season  it  is  hardly 
more  than  a  desert. 

The  southern  plains,  or  pampas, 
are  like  the  Great  Plains  of  the 
United  States.  They  are  nearly 
treeless,  are  covered  with  coarse 
grass,  and  are  famous  herding 
grounds. 

Animals.  No  other  region  is 
so  rich  in  animal  life  as  South 
America. 


In  the  silvas  most  of  the  forms  are 
adapted  for  living  on  trees,  and  hence 
are  rather  small.  Almost  the  only  ex- 
ceptions are  the  tapir,  jaguar,  ant-eating 


E.Y.f«*3UH*>  DEJ  ■ 


BRACUY  1  KJATES  ENSH'«  M,V 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 


107 


bear,  and  boa  constrictor.  Among  the  smaller  animals  are  various 
kinds  of  monkeys,  sloths,  peccaries,  and  ant-eaters ;  many  kinds  of 
humming  birds,  parrots,  and  other  gorgeously  colored  but  generally 
songless  birds ;  and  countless  insects  and  reptiles.  In  the  rivers  are 
found  the  whale-like  manatee  and  many  great  alligators. 
The  llama,  alpaca,  vicuna,  and  little  chinchilla 


made  greater  progress  than  any  others  in  America,  hav- 
ing nearly  reached  the  lowest  stage  of  civilization. 

The  most  advanced  tribe  were  the  Incas,  who  lived  near  Lake  Titi- 
oaca.    With  the  aid  of  irrigation  and  fertilizers  they  cultivated  com,  pota- 
toes, and  cotton;  they  had  domesticated  the  llama  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  and  the  alpaca  for  its  wool,  which  they  wove  into  cloth ; 
they  built  fine  roads  and  immense  buildings  of  stone ;  they 
made  bronze  and  knew  how  to   work  gold 

°A  (  3B and  silver,  of  which  they  made  beautiful 

ornaments   and   utensils.      They   had 


are   adapted   to    the 
colder    climate    of     the 
Andes  by  a  heavy  coat  of  wool 
or  fur,  for  which  the  llama  and  alpaca  are 
domesticated.     The  llama  is  also  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.    Among  the  mountains  are 
found  also  deer,  bears,  the  puma  or  panther,  and 
the  great  condor. 

The  characteristic  animals  of  the  pampas  are  the 
armadillo,  the  guanaco   (a  kind   of  llama),  and  the 

American  ostrich,  or  rhea.     Deer  are  also  found  both  on  — 

the  pampas  and  on  the  llanos,  but  by  far  the  most  numerous 
animals  of  these  plains  are  the  descendants  of  the  cattle,  sheep, 
and    horses   introduced    by   man    since    the    discovery    of    America. 

Supplemental  Work.  Describe  one  plant  of  South  America ;  one 
animal.  Write  a  reproduction  of  the  description  given  by  one  of  your 
schoolmates.    Read  "  What  Mr.  Darwin  Saw." 


MAN. 

Compare  South  and  North  America  in  area ;  in  population  (p.  157). 
Calculate  the  average  number  of  people  to  the  square  mile,  or-  the 
density  of  population,  in  each.  If  the  people  of  the  world  were  evenly 
distributed  over  the  land,  South  America  would  have  six  times  its 
present  population.    What  parts  of  South  America  are  most  densely 

peopled?     Tell  one  reason  why 


POPUTATION 

^"1  Sparse 

|H  Moderately  dense 


so  few  people  live  in  the  central 
region ;  in  the  southern  region. 
What  races  live  in  South  Amer- 
ica? Where  do  the  whites  live 
chiefly  1  Where  are  nearly  all  the 
people  Indians  ?  Where  are  there 
many  negroes  ? 

Peoples  and  Countries. 

When  Columbus  discov- 
ered the  New  "World  there 
were  probably  more  Indi- 
ans in  South  America  than 
in  North  America.  Those 
of  the  lowland  were  gen- 
erally savages,  but  those 
of  the  Andes  highland  had 


ANT-EATER 

Some  animals  of  South  America. 


conquered  nearly  all  the  tribes  of  the  Andes  region  and  formed  them 
into  a  great  confederacy  or  nation,  which  numbered  several  million 
people. 

The  Spaniards  who  followed  Columbus  to  the  north 
coast  of  South  America  in  seai'ch  of  gold  heard  of  the 
gold-working  Incas,  and  soon  conquered  them  and  estab- 
lished themselves  throughout  nearly  the  whole  Andes 
highland  as  far  east  as  the  Orinoco.  Spaniards  also  made 
settlements  in  the  Plata  valley. 

Meanwhile  navigators  from  Portugal,  a  country  lying 
next  to  Spain  in  southwestern  Europe,  explored  and 
conquered  much  of  the  east  coast,  which  came  to  be  called 
Brazil.  Here  the  Portuguese  made  the  first  agricultural 
settlements  in  America,  to  which  they  brought  thousands 
of  negro  slaves  from  Africa. 

Thus  most  of  eastern  and  central  South  America  was  claimed  and 
settled  by  the  Portuguese,  while  the  Andes  region  and  the  lower  part 
of  the  Plata  basin  were  claimed  and  settled  by  Spaniards.  On  the 
northeast  coast  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch  founded  a  few  small 
settlements. 

The  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese  enslaved  the  Indians,  forced 
them  to  work  in  the  mines  or  on  the  plantations,  and  often  treated 
them  cruelly.  But  many  white  settlers  married  Indian  women,  and 
in  the  east  many  negroes  and  Indians  also  intermarried,  so  that  now 
fully  one  third  of  the  people  of  South  America  are  of  a  mixed  race. 
About  one  third  are  pure-blooded  whites,  and  the  rest  are  Indians 


108 


PARTS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


and  negroes.    Slavery  has  been  abolished,  but  most  of  the  manual  labor 
is  performed  by  the  mixed  races  and  the  negroes. 

The  King  of  Spain  ruled  his  South  American  colonies 
so  harshly  that  finally  they  rebelled,  and  after  long  wars 
became  independent  republics,  in  which  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage still  prevails.  About  the  same  time  the  Portuguese 
colonists  declared  their  independence  of  Portugal,  and 
formed  the  only  independent  monarchy  that  has  ever 
existed  in  America.  In  1889,  however,  their  country  became 
a  republic,  in  which  the  Portuguese  language  is  still  spoken. 

Name  the  Portuguese  republic;  the  nine  Spanish  republics;  the 
three  European  colonies.  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  Venezuela  are  com- 
posed of  states  or  provinces  in  which,  as  in  our  states,  the  officers  are 
elected  by  the  people  and  are  nearly  independent  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  local  affairs.  The  other  republics  are  divided  into  provinces 
or  departments  for  which  the  central  government  appoints  the  officers. 
There  have  been  frequent  wars  in  all  the  republics  over  the  working  of 
their  governments,  and  nearly  all  have  fought  with  one  another  over 
their  boundaries,  few  of  which  are  yet  definitely  settled.  On  account 
of  these  wars  the  countries  have  not  advanced  in  wealth  and  impor- 
tance so  rapidly  as  the  United  States.  Still,  much  progress  has  recently 
been  made.  Slavery  having  been  abolished,  free  settlers  are  coming  in 
thousands  from  Europe.  Some  railroads  have  been  built;  the  larger 
cities  are  provided  with  street  cars  and  electric  lights ;  and  schools  and 
colleges  have  been  established.  Catholic  missions  were  early  founded 
among  the  Indians,  and  most  of  the  people  in  South  America  profess 


Coffee  plantation,  southern  Brazil 


that  faith ;  but  other  religions  are  permitted  by  law  in 
all  the  countries  except  Peru  and  Ecuador. 

Industries  and  Products.  The  chief  in- 
dustries in  South  America  are  herding,  agri- 
culture, and  mining.  Where  are  the  chief 
pasture  lands  ?  The  valleys  of  the  Plata 
River  system,  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
Brazilian  plateau,  and  the  river  valleys  along 
the  northern  coast  of  the  grand  division  are 
the  chief  agricultural  regions.  In  the  torrid 
zone,  coffee,  corn,  sugar,  cotton,  cacao,  cassava,  and  tobacco 
are  grown;  in  the  temperate  zone,  wheat,  corn,  and  barley. 
Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  mined  in  the  Andes  region,  but 
the  chief  mineral  product  is  nitrate  of  soda,  useful  as  a 
fertilizer  and  in  making  gunpowder.  This  is  obtained 
from  old  lake  beds  on  the  dry  western  slope.  In  the 
eastern  highlands  also  some  gold  is  found. 

Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  the  United  States  and 


Europe.  "We  get  most  of  our  coffee  and  rubber,  much  wool 
and  sugar,  and  many  hides  from  South  America,  to  which 
we  send  flour  and  some  manufactured  goods,  for  compara- 
tively little  manufacturing  is  done  there.  Most  of  the 
South  American  imports  come  from  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, and  France,  to  which  countries  wool,  beef,  mutton, 
wheat,  coffee,  gold,  silver,  nitrates,  and  forest  products  are 
exported  in  return. 

Where  are  most  of  the  railroads  in  South  America? 
(p.  106.)  These  carry  the  agricultural  and  animal  prod- 
ucts to  the  seaports,  while  the  railroads  in  the  north  and 
west  carry  the  products  of  the  mines  to  the  coast.  ■ 

The  most  extensive  railway  system  is  in  the  southern  part  of  South 
America.  Hero  a  transcontinental  road  is  completed,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  miles  in  the  west,  where  the  two  parts  of  the  line  will  be  con- 
nected by  a  tunnel  through  the  Andes.  Throughout  the  central  region 
the  Amazon,  with  its  tributaries,  is  the  great  commercial  route,  by  which 
rubber  and  other  forest  products  are  carried  from  the  very  base  of  the 
Andes  to  the  seaport  at  the  river  mouth. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL.  In  what  part  of  the  grand 
division  is  Brazil  ?  What  countries  border  it  ?  What  South  American 
countries  do  not  1  Trace  the  chief  divides  of  Brazil.  What  river  basins 
do  they  separate  ?  Describe  the  surface ;  the  climate ;  the  chief  rivers. 
What  is  the  history  of  Brazil  ?  Name  and  locate  the  capital ;  four  cities 
north  of  the  capital ;  two  south. 

Only  a  small  part  of  Brazil,  mostly  in  the  southeast,  is  cul- 
tivated. The  most  valuable  crop  is  coffee,  of  which  Brazil 
produces  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  grown 
on  the  uplands  north  and  west  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Farther 
north,  along  the  coast,  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  raised. 
Much  corn  and  cassava  are  cultivated,  and  they  form  the 
chief  food  of  the  laboring  classes.  In  the  Parana  valley 
an  herb  called  mate  is  extensively  grown.  Its  leaves  are 
much   used  in  South   America  as  a  substitute  for  tea. 


Herding  cattle  on  the  pampas,  Argentina. 

What  products  do  the   silvas  supply!     In  the  extreme 
south  the  herding  of  cattle  is  the  chief  industry. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  second  city  of  South  America  in  size,  is 
about  as  large  as  Boston.  It  has  one  of  the  few  fine  harbors 
of  South  America,  and  ships  much  coffee,  mostly  to  the 
United  States.  What  city  is  west  of  Rio  ?  It  is  in  the  cof- 
fee region,  and  is  the  educational  center  of  Brazil.  Its  port, 
Santos,  ships  more  coffee  than  Rio,  but  chiefly  to  Europe. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


109 


.  Bahia  and  Pernambuco,  each  about  as  large  as  Detroit, 
are  the  ports  of  the  sugar  and  tobacco  district.  Para  is 
the  great  rubber-shipping  port,  and  Maranhao  ships  raw 
cotton.    Porto  Alegre  exports  dried  beef  and  hides. 

ARGENTINA.  What  countries  border  Argentina?  How  does  it 
rank  in  size  among  South  American  countries  ?  Describe  its  surface ; 
its  chief  rivers.    What  is  the  capital  ?    Name  three  cities  of  the  interior. 

Argentina  is  the  most  prosperous  of  the  Spanish  repub- 
lics. It  has  more  railroads  than  Brazil,  and  is  being 
rapidly  settled  by  Italians  and  other  southern  Europeans. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  wool-, 

beef-,   and   mutton-exporting-  hmhm«m«| 

countries  of  the  world.  Hides, 
tallow,  and  other  animal  prod- 
ucts are  also  exported,  as 
well  as  much  wheat  from  the 
lower  Parana  valley.  In  that 
region  large  crops  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  flax  are  raised,  and 


Public  square,  Buenos  Aires. 

Cattle  raising  is  an  impor- 
tant industry,  but  the  climate 
is  too  warm  for  sheep.  Mate, 
or  "  Paraguay  tea,"  is  exten- 
sively cultivated,  as  weH  as 
corn,  cassava,  tobacco,  and 
sugar  cane,  the  women  work- 
ing the  crops,  and  the  men 
gathering  the  mate  leaves 
and  herding  the  cattle.  Lumbering  is  carried  on  in  the 
extensive  forests.     Asuncion  is  the  chief  trade  center. 


Public  gardens,  Bahia. 

there  are  extensive  sugar  plantations  and  vineyards,  as 
well  as  many  flour  mills  and  wine-making  establishments. 
Buenos  Aires,  the  largest  city  of  South  America,  ranks 
between  Boston  and  Philadelphia  in  size.  One  half  of 
the  population  are  Europeans.  Its  harbor  has  been  deep- 
ened at  heavy  cost.  It  is  the  great  seaport  of  the  re- 
public and  of  nearly  the  whole  Plata  valley.  "What  city 
in  our  country  has  similar  commercial  advantages?  Ro- 
sario,  Cordova,  and  Tucuman  are  much  smaller  trade  centers. 

URUGUAY.  What  countries  border  Uruguay  ?  Describe  its  surface 
and  drainage.    What  is  its  capital  ? 

Though  the  smallest  republic  in  South  America,  Uru- 
guay ranks  fourth  in  the  value  of  its  foreign  com- 
merce. Its  industries  are  the  same  as  those  of  Argen- 
tina. Montevideo,  the  chief  commercial  city,  is  about 
one  third  the  size  of  Buenos  Aires. 

PARAGUAY.  What  countries  border  Paraguay  ?  In  what  zones  is 
it?    By  what  rivers  is  it  drained?    What  is  the  capital ? 


CHILE.  By  what  is  Chile  bordered  ?  Describe  the  surface  of  Chile 
What  peak  is  near  the  center  of  its  eastern  boundary  ?  It  has  an 
elevation  of  about  4£  miles,  and  is  the  highest  point  of  the  Western 
Continent.  Explain  the  difference  between  northern  and  southern  Chile 
in  temperature,  rainfall,  and  vegetation.  What  is  the  capital?  What 
seaport  is  near  it?  Name  three  cities  further  south.  Name  two  sea- 
ports in  the  north. 

Because  of  differences  in  climate,  northern,  central,  and 
southern  Chile  differ  greatly  in  aspect  and  in  industries. 
In  the  warm  northern  deserts  mining  is  the  chief  industry. 
Silver,  copper,  and  gold  are  mined,  and  from  the  old  lake 
beds  between  the  Andes  and  the  coast  ranges  great  quan- 
tities of  nitrate  of  potash  are  obtained.  Six  sevenths  of 
the  people  live  in  the  central  region  of  moderate  rainfall, 
where  agriculture  and  the  herding  of  sheep  and  cattle 
are  leading  industries,  and  fine  crops  of  wheat  and  bar- 
ley, grapes  and  other  fruits  are  raised.  Coal  is  mined 
and  exported  from  the  coast  range  south  of  Concepcion. 
In  the  southern  region  of  heavy  rainfall  lumbering  is 
becoming  an  important  industry,  though  Chile  imports 
much  lumber  from  the  United  States.  Coal  and  gold  are 
also  mined  in  the  south,  near  Punta  Arenas.  Chile  ranks 
third  in  commerce  among  the  South  American  countries. 
More  than  half  the  exports  are  nitrates ;  then  come  silver, 
copper,  wheat  and  barley,  and  iodine.  Most  of  the  trade 
is  with  Europe. 

Santiago,  the  largest  city,  is  about  the  size  of  Cincinnati. 
It  is  almost  half  a  mile  above  the  sea,  and  fifty  miles  in- 
land. Like  most  of  the  larger  cities  of  South  America, 
it  was  founded  within  fifty  years  after  the  discovery  of 


110 


PAKTS  OF   THE  EARTH. 


Santiago,  Chile. 

America,  and  is  therefore  much  older  than  any  city  in 
the  United  States.  Because  of  earthquakes,  the  houses, 
as  in  all  the  cities  of  the  Andes  region,  are  generally  low 
and  the  streets  wide.  Valparaiso,  the  largest  Pacific  port 
of  South  America,  is  the  chief  importing  point  of  Chile. 
Most  of  the  minerals  are  shipped  from  Iquique.    Why  ? 

BOLIVIA.  What  countries  border  Bolivia?  In  what  respect  does 
Bolivia  differ  from  all  other  South  American  countries  except  Paraguay  ? 
Describe  the  surface.    What  is  the  capital  ?    Locate  two  other  cities. 

The  eastern  range  of  the  Andes  is  wide  and  exceedingly 
rugged  in  Bolivia.  Several  of  its  vast  volcanic  cones  are 
nearly  as  high  as  Mt'.  Aconcagua.  In  these  mountains 
are  mined  great  quantities  of  silver  and  tin,  which  are 
exported  chiefly  through  the  Chilean  port  of  Antofagasta. 
Most  of  the  imports  come  through  the  Peruvian  port  of 
Mollendo.  Both  ports  are  connected  by  railroads  with  the 
plateau.  On  the  plateau  wheat,  corn,  barley,  beans,  and 
potatoes  are  raised  for  local  consumption,  and  cattle, 
sheep,  and  llamas  are  herded.  Cinchona,  cacao  beans,  and 
rubber  are  gathered  from  the  forests  of  the  east  slopes  and 
exported  by  way  of  the  Madeira  and  Paraguay  rivers. 

La  Paz  is  the  largest  town  and  the  usual  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  city  is  built  in  a  deep  gorge,  through  which 
Lake  Titicaca  once  found  an  outlet  into  the  Amazon  sys- 
tem. Sucre,  not  far  from  the  rich  silver  mines  of  Potosi, 
is  the  constitutional  capital.  -^ 


La  Paz,  Bolivia. 


PERU.  What  countries  border  Peru?  What  great  river  rises  in 
Peru?  Describe  the  surface.  In  what  three  climatic  regions  does 
Peru  he  ?  Locate  the  capital.  What  city  is  in  the  south  ?  What  city 
lies  on  the  plateau  ? 

Few  people  live  on  the  desert  coast,  because  it  is  so  dry, 
or  in  the  inland  forests,  because  they  are  so  wet.  Much 
sugar  and  cotton  are  grown,  by  the  aid  of  irrigation,  in 
the  valleys  of  the  west  slope,  and  they  form  the  chief  ex- 
ports. On  the  plateau  silver  is  mined,  the  same  kinds  of 
food  plants  are  raised  as  in  Bolivia,  and  llamas,  alpacas, 
and  goats  are  herded.  Some  wool  and  silver  are  also  ex- 
ported. On  the  east  slope,  rubber,  cacao  beans,  and  cin- 
chona are  gathered.  There  are  rich  petroleum  wells  in 
the  north,  and  extensive  deposits  of  guano  along  the  dry 
coast.    Three  fourths  of  the  people  are  of  Indian  descent. 

Lima,  the  largest  city,  is  about  the  size  of  Omaha. 
It  is  six  miles  from  the  ocean  and  about  600  feet  above 
sea  level.  What  is  its  seaport?  Arequipa  is  an  important 
railroad  town,  more  than  one  and  a  half  miles  above  the 
sea.  Cuzco,  the  chief  town  of  the  plateau  region,  was  the 
old  capital  of  the  Incas. 


The  Cathedral,  Lima. 

ECUADOR.  What  countries  border  Ecuador  ?  Describe  its  surface. 
Name  two  volcanoes.     What  is  the  capital ;  the  chief  seaport  ? 

Ecuador  has  but  little  commercial  importance.  It  claims 
large  areas  to  the  east  which  have  been  occupied  by  Colom- 
bia and  Peru.  Cacao  is  cultivated  on  the  Pacific  slope 
and  is  the  chief  export,  though  some  coffee  is  also  exported. 
Quito,  the  largest  town,  though  nearly  on  the  equator,  is 
about  two  miles  above  the  sea  and  has  a  delightful  climate. 
Guayaquil  is  the  principal  commercial  city. 

The  Galapagos  group  of  thirteen  volcanic  islands  belongs  to  Ecuador. 
The  lower  slopes  are  dry  and  nearly  bare  of  vegetation,  but  the  upper 
slopes  receive  ample  rainfall  and  are  covered  with  dense  tropical  forests. 
There  are  few  inhabitants. 

COLOMBIA.  By  what  countries  and  waters  is  Colombia  bordered  ? 
Trace  the  divides  between  the  Pacific,  Caribbean,  and  Atlantic  slopes. 
Describe  the  surface.    What  is  the  capital  ?    Name  two  other  cities. 

Most  of  the  people  live  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the 
Cauca  and  Magdalena  rivers.  On  the  hot  lowlands  cassava 
and  bananas  are  cultivated;  at  more  temperate  elevations, 
corn,  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  cacao :  and  on  the  cool  high- 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Ill 


lands,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
and  beans.  Herding  is  an 
important  industry.  Colom- 
bia is  rich  in  minerals,  and 
much  gold  and  some  silver 
are  mined  and  exported,  to- 
gether with  coffee,  cattle, 
hides,  and  tobacco. 

Bogota,  on  the  healthful 
highland,  is  the  capital  and 
largest  city.  Medellin  is  sit- 
uated at  the  center  of  the 
chief  gold-mining  region. 
Barranquilla  is  the  great  re- 
ceiving and  shipping  point 
for  Colombian  trade. 


Natives  of  Venezuela. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  VENEZUELA.  What  countries  border 
Venezuela  ?  Describe  its  surface  and  drainage.  What  lagoon  is  in  the 
northwest  ?    What  is  the  capital  ?    Name  two  other  cities. 

Venezuela  occupies  most  of  the  Orinoco  River  basin, 
and  also  includes  a  large  proportion  of  the  llano  region. 
Most  of  the  people  in  Venezuela  live  on  the  high  slopes 
of  the  Andes  in  the  north.  On  the  uplands  excellent 
"  Maracaibo  "  coffee  is  grown  for  export.  Some  hides  are 
exported  from  the  llanos ;  from  the  southern  forests  some 
rubber  and  dyewoods ;  and  much  gold  from  the  southeast. 


Caracas,  the  largest  city,  is 
more  than  half  a  mile  above 
the  sea,  and  is  connected 
with  its  port,  La  Guaira, 
by  a  railroad  eight  miles 
long.  Valencia,  also  on  the 
uplands,  and  Maracaibo,  the 
only  large  town  on  the  un- 
healthful  lowlands,  are  trade 
centers. 

GUIANA.  What  countries  bor- 
der Guiana?  To  what  European 
nations  does  it  belong?  What  is 
the  chief  town  of  each  division? 


Sugar  raising  and  gold 
mining  are  the  chief  occu- 
pations in  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  and  both  of  these 
articles  are  exported.  There  are  comparatively  few  white 
settlers,  but  many  negroes  and  Hindus  and  some  Chinese 
laborers.  French  Guiana  has  little  trade,  as  it  is  used  by 
France  as  a  place  to  which  criminals  are  banished. 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "  The  Boy  Travellers  in  South  America," 
by  T.  W.  Knox ;  "  Three  Vassar  Girls  in  South  America,"  by  Lizzie  W. 
Champney ;  "  Around  and  About  South  America,"  by  Frank  Vincent ; 
"  The  Spanish  American  Republics,"  by  Theodore  Child ;  or  "  Zephy- 
rus,"  by  E.  R.  P.  Edgcumbe.  Read  or  recite  one  selection  from  Longfel- 
low's "  Poems  of  Places,"  Vol.  30.    Find  out  about  Simon  Bolivar. 


CORRELATIONS  AND  COMPARISONS. 


Size.  How  does  South  America  compare  with  North  America  in  ex- 
tent of  longitude  ?  When  it  is  noon  at  Pernambuco  what  time  is  it  at 
Guayaquil ;  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  in  Galveston  Bay ;  on  Van- 
couver Island  ?  Compare  the  two  grand  divisions  in  extent  of  latitude. 
Use  the  scale  of  miles  to  compare  the  greatest  widths  and  lengths  of 
the  two  grand  divisions. 

Shape  and  Coast.  Compare  the  general  shape  of  South  America 
with  that  of  North  America.  Compare  their  coasts  as  to  regularity  of 
outline.  Compare  Lake  Maracaibo  with  Hudson  Bay ;  the  estuaries  of 
eastern  South  America  with  those  of  eastern  North  America;  the  in- 
dentations of  the  western  coasts  of  the  two  Americas.  Compare  in 
number  and  size  the  continental  islands  of  South  and  of  North 
America.  What  island  of  South  America  is  situated  similarly  to  New- 
foundland ?  What  coast  of  South  America  most  resembles  the  western 
coast  of  British  America  and  southern  Alaska?  Why  do  you  think"' 
these  coasts  may  have  been  similarly  formed? 

Surface.  Compare  the  western  highlands  of  North  and  South  America 
in  general  height ;  in  height  of  peaks ;  in  probable  age ;  in  extent  of 
plateaus ;  in  number  and  regularity  of  ranges.  Compare  the  eastern 
highlands  of  the  grand  divisions  in  extent;  in  direction;  in  general 
height.  Is  there  any  plateau  region  in  North  America  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  Guiana  highland  in  position?  Compare  the  lowlands 
of  North  and  South  America  in  position  ;  in  surface ;  in  slopes. 

Drainage.  Compare  the  various  river  systems  of  the  Atlantic  slope 
of  South  America  with  those  of  the  Atlantic  slope  of  North  America  in 
position,  size  of  basin,  volume  of  water,  mouth,  usefulness.  In  the  same 
way  compare  the  rivers  of  the  Pacific  slope  in  the  two  grand  divisions. 
Explain,  where  you  can;. the  reasons  for  the  differences  you  notice. 
Compare  the  lakes  of  South  America  with  those  of  North  America  in 
number,  size,  position,  formation,  and  usefulness. 

Climate.  Compare  the  heat  belts  of  South  and  North  America  in 
number.      Give  some  reasons  why  the  eastern  part  of  South  America 


has  more  rainfall  than  the  eastern  part  of  North  America.    Write  a 
short  comparative  description  of  the  climate  of  the  two  grand  divisions. 

Life.  Compare  in  extent  the  unproductive  regions  in  the  two  Ameri- 
cas. What  cause  for  unproductiveness  exists  in  the  one  and  not  in  the 
other  ?  Which  has  larger  areas  of  dense  forest ;  of  open  forest  ?  Which 
of  the  South  American  grassy  regions  most  resembles  our  Great  Plains  1 
How  much  of  North  America  does  the  South  American  life  region  in- 
clude ?  Compare  the  life  forms  of  the  silvas  with  those  of  the  Andes ; 
of  the  llanos  ;  of  the  pampas. 

People.  Compare  the  two  Americas  in  density  of  population.  Show 
how  this  density  has  been  affected  in  each  case  by  latitude ;  by  ele- 
vation ;  by  occupation.  In  what  parts  of  South  America  does  the  black 
race  chiefly  live  ?  Why  ?  What  types  of  the  yellow  race  are  found  ? 
Chiefly  in  what  parts?  How  did  the  Indians  found  in  North  and  South 
America  compare  in  civilization?  Compare  the  European  settlements 
of  North  and  South  America  in  date  ;  in  purpose ;  in  nationality.  Com- 
pare the  French  settlements  in  the  two  Americas  in  extent;  in  purpose  ; 
in  permanency.  Compare  in  the  same  way  the  Dutch  settlements ;  the 
English  settlements.  Compare  the  governments  in  the  two  Americas. 
In  which  does  a  larger  proportion  of  territory  belong  to  European 
nations  ?  " 

Industries.  What  agricultural  products  are  important  in  both 
Americas?  Which  grow  chiefly  in  South  America?  What  minerals 
are  mined  in  both?  Which  chiefly  in  South  America?  What  important 
minerals  are  little  mined  in  South  America  ?  Compare  the  forest  prod- 
ucts of  the  two  grand  divisions.  Find  industrial  regions  of  North 
America  to  which  the  various  countries  of  South  America  correspond 
in  products.  To  what  industrial  section  of  the  United  States  is  there  no 
corresponding  country  in  South  America  ?  Describe  the  commerce  be- 
tween the  South  American  countries  and  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Compare  the  natural  trade  routes  within  South  and  North  America ;  the 
artificial  trade  routes. 


EURASIA. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

Extent  and  Coast  Features.  In  what  part  of  the  continental 
plateau  is  Eurasia  ?  (map,  p.  8.)  Between  which  grand  divisions  of 
land  does  it  lie  ?  By  what  is  it  separated  from  or  connected  with 
each  of  the  three  ?  How  does  it  compare  with  North  America  in 
size  ?  (p.  157.)  What  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the  world  does 
it  embrace? 

On  the  map,  pp.  112,  113,  connect  with  straight  lines  the  most 
northeastern,  southeastern,  and  southwestern  points  of  Eurasia. 
Which  of  the  three  sides  of  the  grand  division  has  the  most  regu- 
lar coast  line  ?  Name  four  seas,  two  gulfs,  and  a  bay  which  border 
the  northern  coast.  What  two  peninsulas  project  from  it  ?  What 
large  islands  are  near  it  ? 

Which  is  the  most  irregular  coast  of  Eurasia  ?  What  four  seas 
border  it  west  of  the  isthmus  of  Suez  f  With  what  ocean  are  they 
connected  ?  What  three  peninsulas  project  from  this  part  of  the 
coast  ?  Name  five  large  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Name 
two  seas,  a  gulf,  and  a  bay  which  border  the  coast  east  of  the 
isthmus.  With  what  ocean  are  they  connected  ?  What  three  great 
peninsulas  do  they  border  ? 

Name  six  seas  and  a  gulf  on  the  east  coast.  Of  what  ocean  are 
they  a  part  ?  What  peninsulas  project  from  this  coast  ?  What 
island  groups  are  south  and  east  of  the  South  China  Sea  ?  What 
long  island  chain  is  north  of  the  Philippine  Islands  ? 

Surface.  Review  the  lesson  on  highlands  and  lowlands  (p.  10). 
In  what  part  of  Eurasia  are  nearly  all  the  highlands?  Compare 
them  with  the  American  highland  in  length;  in  width;  in  direc- 
tion. Name  four  large  plateaus  of  the  Eurasian  highland;  five 
smaller  plateaus.  What  part  of  Eurasia  is  an  almost  continuous 
lowland  plain?  By  what  mountain  range  is  it  divided?  By 
what  oceans  is  it  bordered?  How  do  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Ocean 
slopes  of  Eurasia  compare  with  the  Pacific  slope  of  America  in 
amount  of  lowland?  Name  three  lowland  plains  on  the  Pacific 
slope  of  Eurasia ;  two  on  the  Indian  Ocean  slope.  Name  a  great 
detached  plateau  of  this  slope. 

The  Highlands.  The  great  Eurasian  highland  ex- 
tends as  a  continuous  region  of  elevation  from  Bering 
Strait  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  cut  eritirely 
through  by  the  outlet  from  the  Black  Sea,  but  extends 
through  southern  Europe  as  a  broken  and  much 
narrower  highland  to  the  Spanish  peninsula.  In 
central  Asia  this  vast  highland  is  as  wide  as  the 
United  States  from  San  Francisco  to  Chesapeake  Bay. 
There  is  no  continuous  mountain  chain  traversing 
the  great  highland,  as  in  America,  but  from  Bering 
Strait  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  there  is  a  broken  suc- 
cession of  mountain  ranges.  Between  them  are  broad 
desert  plateaus  which  differ  greatly  in  elevation.  The 
small,  rugged  Pamir  plateau  and  the  extensive  but 
smoother  plateau  of  Tibet  are  about  three  miles  in 
elevation,  while  the  great  plateaus  to  the  northeast 
and  southwest  of  them  are  not  one  third  as  high.  The 
mountain  ranges  rise  from  one  to  three  miles  above 
the  surface  of  the  plateaus,  and  some  of  them  are  the 
highest  in  the  world. 

What  three  ranges  extend  eastward  from  the  Pamir  region, 
forming  the  borders  of  the  plateaus  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia  ?  These 
are  the  loftiest  mountains  in  the  world.  The  upper  third  of  their 
slopes  is  always  covered  with  snow,  from  which  great  valley  glaciers 
extend  much  lower.  Mt.  Everest,  in  the  Himalayas,  is  the  highest 
measured  peak,  and  has  an  elevation  of  5£  miles,  but  there  are 
many  peaks  nearly  five  miles  high  in  each  of  these  chains. 


114 


PARTS  OF   THE  EARTH. 


What  two  chains  are  in  the  northern  part  of  the  plateau  of  Mon- 
golia? What  chain  forms  its  eastern  border?  What  is  this  chain 
called  north  of  the  Amur  River?  These  chains  are  lower  than  those 
nearer  the  Pamir  plateau,  but  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Altai  range 
are  three  miles  high. 

What  three  chains  form  the  northern  border  of  the  highland  west  of 
Pamir  plateau  ?  The  Hindu  Kush  is  a  snow-capped  range  about  four 
miles  high.  The  other  chains  are  lower,  but  they  contain  lofty  peaks, 
and  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Caucasus  are  filled  with  glaciers.  What 
chains  border  the  plateau  of  Iran  on  the  east  and  on  the  southwest  ? 

What  plateaus  and  ranges  compose  the  Eurasian  highland  in  south- 
ern Europe  ?  Of  these  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  are  snow-clad,  and 
have  peaks  between  two  and  three  miles  high. 

What  two  mountain  ranges  are  in  the  great  northern  lowland  ?  These 
ranges  are  scarcely  a  mile  high.  The  Urals  are  a  gradual  swell  in  the 
great  plain.  The  Kiolen  Mountains  slope  gradually  to  the  east,  but 
their  abrupt  western  slope  forms  the  bold,  rocky  coast  of  the  Scandi- 
navian peninsula.     Great  glaciers  descend  from  them  to  the  sea. 

What  plateau  occupies  the  peninsula  of  India  ?  It  is  composed  of  old 
outflows  of  lava  like  those  of  the  Columbia  plateaus. 

Earthquakes  are  not  uncommon  throughout  the  Eurasian  highland, 
and  they  indicate  that  its  upheaval  may  still  be  in  progress.  There  are 
many  old  volcanic  rocks  in  the  highland  region,  but  comparatively  few 
active  volcanoes  on  the  mainland  of  Eurasia,  and  these  are  widely  sep- 
arated—one is  on  the  Italian  peninsula,  two  or  three  near  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  one  or  two  northeast  of  the  Pamir  plateau,  and  several  on 
the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka.  About  150  active  volcanoes,  however, 
occur  on  the  long  chain  of  mountainous  islands  which  rise  from  the  sub- 
merged edge  of  the  continental  plateau  east  and  southeast  of  Asia. 
This  region  is  the  greatest  center  of  volcanic  activity  in  the  world. 
It  is  shaken  by  earthquakes  almost  constantly.  Probably  no  other  part 
of  the  continental  plateau  is  being  upheaved  so  rapidly. 

The  Lowlands.  Most  of  the  great  northern  lowland 
has  an  elevation  of  less  than  500  feet,  and  in  places  it  is 
actually  below  sea  level.  Find  such  a  place.  In  general 
its  flat  surface  is  broken  only  by  the  low  bluffs  which 
border  the  broad  flood  plains  of  the  streams. 

The  detached  lowland  plains  to  the  east  and  south  of  the 
great  highlands  are  composed  of  alluvium  washed  from  the 
bordering  mountains,  and  their  upheaval  is  thought  to 
have  been  comparatively  recent. 


rain  ?  What  is  peculiar  about  the  winds  of  southern  and  southeastern 
Asia?  (p.  26.)  What  effect  have  these  winds  and  the  highlands  upon 
the  rainfall  of  this  region ;  upon  the  rainfall  of  central  and  southwest- 
ern Asia  ?  What  are  the  causes  of  the  moderately  heavy  and  the  light 
rainfall  in  western  and  northern  Eurasia  ? 


Climate.  Review  the  lesson  on  the  heat  belts  (pp.  24,  25).  In  what 
five  heat  belts  does  Eurasia  he  ?  What  part  of  Eurasia  lies  in  each  heat 
belt  ?  To  which  other  grand  division  is  Eurasia  similar  in  the  general 
distribution  of  its  heat  belts  ?  Review  the  lessons  on  winds  and  rain- 
fall (pp.  26,  27).  Where  are  the  largest  regions  of  heavy  or  moderately 
heavy  rainfall  in  Eurasia  ?    Where  are  the  regions  of  light  rains  or  no 


RAINFAIX 

1 \LMU  or  no  rain 

FlM  rmtiu 

SH£|  Mudiraltly  htaty  raim 


Because  of  the  greater  extent  of  Eurasia  the  extremes 
of  temperature  in  the  interior  are  greater  than  in  North 
America.  Why  ?  The  coldest  winters  in  the  world  occur 
in  northeastern,  and  nearly  the  hottest  summers  in  south- 
western Asia.  Thus,  with  the  exception  of  the  southern 
and  the  western  parts,  Eurasia  is  characterized  by  excess- 
ive temperature  changes  during  the  year.  Even  in  the 
hot  belt  there  is  a  chilly  season  when  the  dry  winds  blow 
southward  from  the  highlands.  The  summer  heat  and 
the  winter  cold  in  the  west  are  tempered  by  the  pre- 
vailing winds  from  the  Atlantic. 

In  the  south  and  southeast  the  monsoon  winds  (p.  26) 
blowing  from  the  sea  in  summer  yield  copious  rainfall 
on  the  seaward  slopes,  while  little  rain  falls  at  other" 
seasons,  when  the  winds  blow  seaward.  The  sea  winds 
lose  most  of  their  moisture  on  the  seaward  slopes  of  the 
ranges  bordering  the  great  highlands,  so  that  the  plateaus 
and  lowlands  behind  these  ranges  receive  little  or  no  rain 
and  are  therefore  deserts.  The  westerly  winds,  with  their  x 
cyclonic  storms,  yield  ample  rainfall  at  nearly  all  seasons 
over  western  and  central  Europe,  but  have  little  moisture 
left  when  they  reach  northern  Asia. 

Drainage.  Beginning  in  the  Khinghan  Mountains  trace  a  continu- 
ous line  around  a  great  central  region  of  Eurasia  whose  drainage  does 
not  reach  the  ocean  or  any  of  its  arms.  Locate  this  region  on  the  rain- 
fall map,  and  tell  why  it  is  a  region  of  "  interior  drainage."  Does  any 
rain  fall  in  this  region  ?  Does  the  rainfall  give  rise  to  any  streams  ? 
What  becomes  of  these  streams?  (p.  15.)  Is  the  water  of  these  lakes 
fresh  or  salt  ?  Why  ?  What  is  the  largest  sheet  of  water  in  this  region  ? 
What  two  large  tributaries  has  it  ?  If  the  rainfall  of  Central  Asia  were 
sufficiently  heavy,  part  of  this  great  interior  basin  would  be  drained  to 
the  Pacific,  part  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  part  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
through  the  Caspian,  Black,  and  Mediterranean  seas.  What  other  part 
of  Eurasia  sends  no  drainage  to  the  sea  ?  What  three  large  rivers  of 
Eurasia  flow  to  the  Arctic  Ocean?  What  four  flow  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean?  Name  four  that  flow  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Name  three  that 
flow  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  through  the  Black  Sea.  Do  the  Eurasian 
rivers  flowing  to  the  Arctic  and  those  flowing  to  the  Indian  Ocean  have 
their  sources  near  together  ?    Why  not  ? 


EURASIA. 


115 


The  Alps. 

As  so  large  a  part  of  Eurasia  receives  light  or  scanty 
rainfall,  none  of  its  streams  equals  in  volume  the  great 
rivers  of  America.  On  the  moist  southeast  slope  the 
river  basins  are  comparatively  small,  while  the  large 
basins  of  the  north  receive  only  a  light  rainfall.  Thus 
the  Yangtze,  which  is  the  longest  and  largest  river  of 
Eurasia,  is  not  much  larger  than  the  St.  Lawrence  in 
volume,  though  the  four  large  rivers  of  the  north  are 
but  little  smaller.  In  general  the  streams  in  the  south- 
east and  in  the  west  are  much  larger  in  proportion  to 
their  length  than  those  in  the  north  and  in  the  south- 
west.    Why  ? 

The  Caspian  Sea  is  about  five  times  as  large  as  Lake 
Superior,  and  is  the  largest  lake  in  the  world.  The  evap- 
oration from  it  is  so  rapid  that  its  surface  lies  about 
eighty-five  feet  below  sea  level,  though  it  receives  the 
Ural  and  the  great  Volga,  a  river  as  large  as  the  Mac- 
kenzie. The  land  barrier  which  separates  the  Black  Sea 
from  the  Caspian,  north  of  the  Caucasus,  is  so  low  that 
if  the  Black  Sea  were  to  rise  ninety  feet  it  would  overflow 
into  the  Caspian. 

The  two  large  and  many  small  lakes  east  of  the  Caspian  are  all  higher 
than  the  Caspian  Sea,  but  because  of  the  rapid  evaporation  none  of  them 
can  overflow  its  basin.  What  large  lake  is  in  the  Yenisei  basin  ?  It  is 
about  twice  the  size  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  is  the  largest  fresh-water  lake 
in  Eurasia.  There  are  very  many  smaller  fresh-water  lakes,  as  well  as 
extensive  swamps,  on  the  low,  flat  surface  of  the  northern  plain,  par- 
ticularly near  the  central  part.  West  of  the  Urals  the  surface  is  covered 
with  the  drift  of  the  old  Scandinavian  glacier  (p.  20),  and  greatly  re- 
sembles the  great  Canadian  lowland.  Name  the  two  largest  lakes  in  this 
region. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  circles  representing  the  western  and 
eastern  hemispheres,  and  sketch  North  and  South  America,  and  Eurasia. 


Draw  on  a  larger  scale 
a  map  of  Eurasia,  naming  the 
chief  indentations  and  peninsulas,  the 
chief  mountains  and  rivers,  and  indica- 
ting the  chief  divides.    Model  Eurasia.     Write 
a  comparison  of  the  climates  of  central,  southern, 
and  western  Eurasia. 

VEGETATION  AND  ANIMALS. 

Review  the  lesson  on  distribution  of  life  (pp.  28-29).  Why  do  dense 
forests  grow  in  southeastern  Eurasia  ?  What  part  of  Eurasia  is  covered 
with  vast  open  forests  ?  What  is  the  rainfall  of  this  region  ?  What 
part  is  an  open  grassy  region  or  a  desert  ?  Why  ?  What  two  great  life 
regions  occupy  most  of  Eurasia?  (map,  p.  29.)  What  physical  fea- 
tures form  the  barrier  between  these  regions?  Why  are  there  broad 
transitional  regions  between  them  in  the  east  and  west  but  not  in  the 
center?  Review  the  lessons  on  the  Oriental  and  Eurasian  life  regions 
(p.  31),  and  mention  some  of  the  characteristic  plants  and  animals  of 
each  region. 

The  Arctic  coast  of  Eurasia,  like  that  of  America,  is 
bordered  by  dreary  tundras  in  which  mosses  and  lichens 
form  the  principal  vegetation.  The  broad  belt  of  forests 
south  of  the  tundras  is  composed  chiefly  of  cone-bearing 
evergreen  trees,  such  as  spruce,  pines,  and  firs,  but  is 
broken  by  many  great  treeless  areas  and  swamps  covered 
with  birch  and  willow  thickets.  In  the  southwestern  part 
of  this  belt  are  fine  forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  other  hard- 
wood trees.  Many  years  ago  this  forest  belt  extended 
westward  to  the  Atlantic,  but  it  has  long  since  been  cleared 
away  from  the  fertile  lowlands  in  that  region. 

The  principal  large  animals  of  the  forest  region  are  rein- 
deer, elk,  and  bear,  but  there  are  many  wolves,  and  very 
many  small  fur-bearing  animals,  as  ermines,  martens,  sa- 
bles, squirrels,  and  foxes. 

In  the  drier  region  south  of  the  forest  belt,  both  in  the 
lowlands  and  on  the  plateaus,  are  vast  grassy  prairies,  or 
steppes,  which  merge  into  the  exceedingly  dry  and  barren 
deserts.  These  steppes  and  deserts  form  the  characteristic 
feature  of  central  Eurasia  from  the  Mediterranean  nearly 
to  the  Pacific. 

Almost  the  only  forests  throughout  this  whole  region  grow  on  the 
moister  sides  of  the  mountain  ranges.    Oaks,  beeches,  chestnuts,  cedars, 


116 


PAKTS  OF   THE  EARTH. 


'  ■'  V  ■'.  „. . 


ARGUS  PHEASANT 


Some  animals  of  Eurasia. 


laurels,  and  myrtles  are  common  trees  on  the  lower  and  moister  slopes, 
while  firs,  pines,  and  other  trees  yielding  resinous  gums  grow  at  greater 
elevations. 

This  is  the  true  home  of  the  ancestors  of  the  horse,  the 
cow,  the  camel,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  and  the  hog,  and  great 
numbers  of  all  these  domesticated  animals  are  raised 
here,  while  wild  animals  closely  related  to  them  are  the 
most  characteristic  animals.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
wild  sheep  and  goats,  antelopes  and  gazelles,  wild  boars, 
camels,  asses,  and  wild  oxen,  including  oxlike,  hairy  yaks, 
and  hairless  buffaloes.  There  are  several  kinds  of  bears 
among  the  mountains,  while  the  tiger  and  the  leopard 
wander  northward  over,  the  transitional  regions  as  far  as 
to  the  Amur  River  in  the  east  and  to  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  the  west. 

The  great  deserts  are  almost  entirely  devoid  of  surface  water  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles.  In  places,  however,  the  ground  water  comes  near 
enough  to  the  surface  to  supply  the  roots  of  plants.  In  such  a  place  an 
oasis  of  vegetation  is  formed  in  the  midst  of  the  barren  desert.  Some 
oases  are  many  miles  in  extent  and  contain  springs  and  running 
streams,  but  others  are  quite  small  and  afford  water  to  the  thirsty  traveler 
only  by  means  of  shallow  wells  which  have  been  dug  down  to  the  under- 
ground supply. 

Violent  winds  at  times  sweep  over  the  open  desert,  raising  dense 
clouds  of  dust  and  sand,  which  are  carried  forward  in  such  immense 
quantities  as  nearly  to  bury  any  unfortunate  travelers  overtaken  by  the 
storm.     Because  of  such  windstorms  some  parts  of  almost  all  deserts  are 


bare  and  stony,  being  swept  nearly  clean  of  the  surface  detritus,  while  ■ 
other  parts  are  deeply  covered  with  shifting  sand  dunes. 

The  dense  forests  of  southeastern  Asia  have  been  much 
reduced  by  the  crowded  population,  and  are  now  confined 
to  tracts  least  favorable  to  cultivation  —  as  marshy  low- 
lands or  rough  hilly  districts.  These  forests  are  much 
denser  and  more  luxuriant  than  those  of  the  north.  In  w 
the  lowlands  are  many  kinds  of  palms,  bamboos,  and  trees 
yielding  India  rubber,  spices,  and  dyewoods,  together  with 
pitcher  plants  and  hundreds  of  vines  growing  between  the 
trees,  matting  them  together  and  forming  with  the  rank 
undergrowth  an  impenetrable  jungle. 

Here  the  rhinoceros  and  the  wild  boar  make  their 
homes.  Tigers  and  several  kinds  of  leopards  also  live 
in  the  jungle.  These  fierce  animals  wander  out  into  the 
cultivated  lands  at  night  and  kill  hundreds  of  people  every 
year,  besides  thousands  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Many  more 
people,  however,  are  killed  by  the  bite  of  the  cobra,  a  ven- 
omous snake  which  abounds  in  India. 

On  the  higher  lands  the  forests  are  composed  of  many 
fine  timber  trees,  of  which  the  toon,  sal,  teak,  satinwood, 
and  sandalwood  are  'the  most  valuable.  In  these  forests 
are  found  elephants,  bears,  monkeys,  and  wild  cattle. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  lists  of  the  Eurasian  plants  and  animals 
which  you  have  seen.  Describe  one  plant  and  one  animal  of  Eurasia 
which  you  have  not  seen. 


EUROPE. 


117 


MAM\^uu^yyV 


What  is  the  population  of  Asia ;  of  Europe  ?  (p.  157.)  How  does 
the  population  of  Eurasia  compare  with  that  of  the  whole  world ;  with 
that  of  the  whole  of  America?  Has  Eurasia  or  North  America  the 
denser  population  ?  Eurasia  is  the  most  densely  peopled  of  all  the  grand 
divisions.  J£  the  people  were  evenly  distributed  over  the  land  surface  of 
the  world  Eurasia  would  have  but  half  of  its  present  population.  In 
what  parts  is  the  population  dense  or  very  dense  ?  Nearly  four  fifths  of 
the  people  of  Eurasia  live  in  these  three  regions.  Why  are  northern, 
central,  and  southwestern  Asia  not  so  well  adapted  for  a  dense  popula- 
tion ?  What  two  races  live  in  Eurasia  ?  In  what  parts  do  the  whites 
live  chiefly  ?  Locate  the  homes  of  five  peoples  of  the  white  race.  What 
people  of  the  yellow  race  extends  westward  between  the  Europeans  and 
other  Aryan  peoples?  Locate  the  homes  of  two  other  peoples  of  the 
yellow  race.    Review  the  lesson  on  man's  culture,  pp.  34,  35. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  people  in  all  the  thickly- 
settled  regions  of  Eurasia  have  reached  some  degree  of 
civilization.  It  is  only  in  the  dense  forests  of  the  islands 
and  mainland  in  the  extreme  southeast  and  along  the 


bleak  Arctic  shores  that  a  few  savage  tribes  are  found. 
Most  of  the  native  tribes  in  the  sparsely  settled  northern 
lowland  are  far  advanced  through  the  stage  of  barbarism. 

Unlike  America,  Eurasia  has  been  the  home  of  civilized  man  ever 
since  the  beginning  of  history,  for  it  was  probably  in  this  grand  division 
that  man  first  became  civilized.  People  were  already  civilized  more 
than  4000  years  ago  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  India,  and  China,  as 
well  as  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Nile  just  west  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 
No  one  has  yet  been  able  to  tell  certainly  in  which  of  these  localities 
civilization  appeared  first.  This  early  civilization,  however,  was  very 
imperfect,  and  it  improved  so  slowly  that  the  people  of  these  regions  are 
not  yet  highly  civilized. 

More  than  3000  years  ago  civilization  reached  the  Grecian  peninsula, 
and  thence  it  gradually  spread  through  western  Eurasia.  This  western 
civilization  improved  so  rapidly  that  the  Aryans  of  Europe  became  more 
highly  civilized  than  the  other  people  of  Eurasia.  As  they  advanced  in 
civilization  their  wants  became  greater,  and  they  sought  new  and  better 
commercial  routes  by  which  their  wants  might  be  supplied.  In  this 
search  their  ships  sailed  completely  around  the  world,  and  they  dis- 
covered southern  Africa,  the  unknown  continents  of  America  and  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  islands  of  the  sea.  They  planted  colonies  in  these  and 
other  lands,  thus  carrying  their  civilization  over  the  globe.  This  civili- 
zation has  constantly  advanced  until  now  the  European  Aryans  and 
their  descendants  in  the  new  lands  which  they  have  settled  are  by  far 
the  most  enlightened  people  in  the  world. 

Supplemental  Work.  Write  a  comparison  of  eastern  and  western 
Eurasia  in  density  of  population,  races,  and  culture  of  inhabitants. 

TOPICS  ON  EURASIA. 

I.  Northern  Plain.    Coast.   Surface.   Climate.    Drainage.    Life: 
vegetable;  animal.    Man:  density;  races;  civilization. 

II.  Eastern  and  Southern  Plains.  Names.  Formation.  Cli- 
mate. Drainage.  Life:  vegetable;  animal.  Man:  density;  races; 
history;  civilization. 

III.  Eastern   Highlands.     Plateaus.     Mountains.    Climate.    Life. 
rV.  Western  Highlands.    Plateaus.    Mountains.    Climate.    Life. 
V.  Islands.  Western.  Eastern.   Chief  groups.  Movement.   Climate. 
Life. 


EUROPE. 


Before  studying  the  following  lesson  on  People  and  Countries  take  the  Map 
Exercise  on  Europe  at  the  top  of  page  119. 

PEOPLE  AND  COUNTRIES. 

People.  Europe,  though  little  larger  than  the  United 
States,  contains  five  times  as  many  inhabitants,  and  hence 
is  much  more  densely  peopled.  In  what  part  is  the  popu- 
lation dense  or  very  dense  ?  Compare  these  regions  in  ex- 
tent with  the  corresponding  regions  in  the  United  States 
(map,  p.  57).    "Where  is  the  population  of  Europe  sparse  1 

Countries.  Europe  is  composed  of  twenty  or  more  in- 
dependent states  or  countries,  in  nearly  every  one  of  which 
the  people  differ  from  those  of  the  others  in  language,  cus- 
toms, and  standards  of  living. 

This  variety  in  language  and  customs  in  neighboring  localities  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  and  characteristic  differences  between  the  popula- 
tion of  Europe  and  that  of  the  United  States.    The  difference  arises 


EUROPE. 


119 


Map  Exercise  on  Europe.  The  Ural  and  Caucasus  mountains  and 
the  Caspian  and  Black  seas  are  often  considered  the  boundaries  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia.  What  is  the  most  northern  point  of  the  Euro- 
pean mainland?  What  point  on  the  American  mainland  is  in  about  the 
same  latitude?  What  point  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America  is  in  about 
the  same  latitude  as  the  most  southern  point  of  the  European  mainland  ? 
How  does  Europe  compare  with  the  United  States  in  size? 

From  the  Ural  Mountains  trace  the  divide  between  the  northern  and 
southern  slopes  of  Europe.  In  what  physical  division  does  the  east- 
ern half  of  this  divide  lie?  The  western  half?  Into  what  arms  of  the 
sea  is  the  northern  slope  drained?  Name  two  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
-'Baltic  Sea;  two  that  flow  into  the  North  Sea;  one  that  flows  into  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  Into  what  seas  is  the  southern  slope  drained?  Trace 
the  divide  in  Europe  of  the  Caspian  basin;  of  the  Black  Sea  basin. 
Name  the  two  largest  rivers  of  the  Caspian  basin;  the  three  largest  of 
the  Black  Sea  basin.  What  river  flows  into  the  Adriatic?  What  two 
flow  into  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean? 

Through  what  part  of  Europe  does  the  great  Eurasian  highland  ex- 
tend? What  moim tains  and  what  plains  are  in  the  Danube  basin?  What 
mountains  form  the  southern  divide  of  this  basin?  What  mountains 
extend  south  into  the  Grecian  peninsula?  What  mountains  traverse  the 
Italian  peninsula?  What  mountains  are  between  the  Alps  and  the  Pyre- 
nees? Name  two  ranges  of  the  Spanish  plateau.  What  mountains  are 
in  northwestern  Europe?  What  group  of  large  islands  is  near  the  west 
coast?    By  what  is  Great  Britain  separated  from  the  mainland? 

Supplemental  Work.  Sketch  Europe,  locating  its  chief  mountains, 
plateaus,  plains,  divides,  rivers,  bays,  and  islands.     Model  Europe. 


mainly  from  the  different  ways  in  which  the  two  regions  were  civilized. 
The  United  States  received  civilization  through  the  overrunning  and 
settling  of  the  country,  during  the  last  300  years,  by  a  vast  number  of 


Ancient  ruins  in  Rome. 

highly  civilized,  white  foreigners,  most  of  whom  used  the  English  lan- 
guage. This  foreign  population  absorbed  or  drove  off  the  comparatively 
few  native  Indians  and  replaced  barbarism  with  its  own  old  and  foreign 
civilization.  Civilization,  on  the  contrary,  was  itself  very  young  and 
rude  when  it  first  appeared  in  Europe  thousands  of  years  ago,  and  it 
spread  among  the  many  native  tribes  so  slowly  that  the  barbarous  na- 
tives themselves  gradually  became  civilized,  and  then,  as  the  centuries 
passed,  they  invented  the  more  modern  civilization  which  was  carried  to 
America.  As  among  the  American  Indians,  so  among  the  barbarous 
tribes  of  Europe  there  were  many  native  languages.  In  the  United 
States  the  native  languages  and  customs  were  swept  away  with  the 
Indians,  but  in  Europe  various  tribes  retained  their  languages  and 
many  of  their  customs  as  they"  gradually  advanced  in  civilization. 
The  languages  and  customs  of  neighboring  tribes  were  often  some- 


what similar  but  were  quite  different  from  those  in  distant  regions,  for 
few  people  traveled  far  from  home  in  those  days.  It  was  only  when 
some  tribe  conquered  and  settled  among  another  people  that  distant  tribes 
mixed  together.  In  such  cases  both  of  the  old  languages  gradually  disap- 
peared, while  from  their  blending  a  new  language  came  to  be  used  by 
the  descendants  of  the  mixed  people. 

The  states  of  our  Union  are  merely  political  subdivisions  formed 
mainly  for  the  convenience  of  local  government— many  of  them  having 
been  marked  out  on  paper  with  straight  and  regular  boundaries  before 
they  were  settled  by  civilized  men.  Most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  how- 
ever, are  regions  inhabited  by  people  who  during  ages  of  occupation  and 
contact  have  become  more  closely  related  to  one  another  in  language, 
customs,  and  history,  than  they  are  to  the  people  of  the  other  countries. 
Hence  the  boundaries  of  European  countries  are  very  irregular. 

Southwestern  Europe.  Name  five  countries  of  the  European  mainland 
which  have  a  seacoast  and  which  lie  west  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  These  are  called  Latin  countries  because  the  languages  spoken  in 
them  are  derived  from  the  Latin  language  used  by  the  ancient  Romans. 


A  Viking's  ship. 

The  Latins  were  a  people  of  Italy  who  early  received  civilization  from 
the  Grecian  peninsula.  They  built  Rome,  which  2000  years  ago  was  the 
largest  and  most  magnificent  city  of  the  world.  They  conquered  and 
taught  civilization  to  all  the  tribes  of  Europe  southwest  of  the  Rhine 
and  added  that  region  to  the  great  Roman  Empire,  which  extended  east- 
ward through  southern  Europe  and  far  into  southwestern  Asia. 

The  Christian  religion  was  brought  to  Rome  by  the  Apostles  shortly 
after  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  Rome  to  this  day  is  the  resi- , 
dence  of  the  Pope,  the  head  of  the  Catholic  Church;  and  this  form  of 
religion  still  prevails  in  all  the  Latin  countries. 

Central  Europe.  Trace  a  straight  line  from  southeastern  Italy  to 
North  Cape.  What  seven  countries  he  wholly  or  mostly  between  this 
line  and  the  Latin  countries?  Most  of  the  languages  in  this  region,  as 
well  as  the  English  language,  which  is  used  in  the  British  Isles,  resemble 
the  old  German  language,  and  so  these  countries  are  often  called  Ger- 
manic or  Teutonic  countries. 

The  old  Teutonic  tribes  remained  barbarians  long  after  the  Romans 
had  conquered  and  civilized  the  Latin  countries,  for  though  the  Romans 
often  fought  the  Teutons  they  could  never  conquer  them,  but  were  at 
last  conquered  by  them.  Then  followed  the  "  Dark  Ages,"  during  which 
the  barbarians  overran  the  civilized  Latin  countries,  but  in  doing  so 
learned  civilization  from  the  conquered  people.  Two  Teutonic  tribes, 
the  Angles  and  the  Saxons,  whose  home  was  near  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea,  crossed  to  Great  Britain  and  settled  in  the  southern  part,  which 
came  to  be  called  Angle-land  or  England,  while  the  blended  language  of 
these  settlers  became  Anglo-Saxon  or  early  English.  The  tribes  of  the 
Scandinavian  and  Danish  peninsulas  were  fearless  sea  rovers  called 
Northmen  and  Vikings.     They  overran  all  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea 


120 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


and  the  English  Channel  and  discovered  and  settled  Iceland  and  Green- 
land. They  probably  even  visited  New  England,  500  years  before  Co- 
lumbus reached  the  West  Indies. 

The  Christian  religion  was  spread  throughout  central  Europe  by 
priests  and  monks  belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church,  but  now  the  Protes- 
tant faith  prevails  in  all  the  Germanic  countries,  except  Austria,  which 
is  still  mainly  Catholic. 

Eastern  Europe.  What  great  country  occupies  most  of  eastern  Eu- 
rope f  What  six  countries  occupy  the  southeastern  part  ?  The  eastern 
part  of  Europe  is  called  Slavonic  Europe  because  nearly  all  of  the 
languages  used  show  a  blending  with  the  language  used  by  the  Slavs, 
a  great  tribe  that  once  lived  northeast  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Although  Greece  was  the  first  European  region  to  become  civilized, 
most  of  eastern  Europe  received  civilization  through  central  Europe,  and 
was  thus  the  last  part  of  the  grand  division  to  become  civilized.  On 
this  account,  and  also  because  it  has  often  been  invaded  by  rude  tribes 
of  the  yellow  race  from  Asia,  it  is  not  so  highly  civilized  to-day  as  the 
western  half  of  Europe.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  population  are 
Aryans,  but  there  are  many  people 
of  the  Turkish  branch  of  the  yellow 
race  in  all  these  countries. 

Throughout  most  of  Eastern  Eu- 
rope the  Greek  form  of  the  Christian 
religion  is  the  prevailing  faith,  but 
in  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  very  many 
of  the  people  are  Mohammedans. 

Government.  While  the 
governments  of  most  Ameri- 
can countries  are  republican 
in  form,  there  are  in  Europe 
but  two  important  republics, 
France  and  Switzerland.  All 
the  other  large  countries  are 
monarchies. 

In  France  and  Switzerland  the 
ruler  is  elected  from  among  the  com- 
mon people  to  hold  office  for  a  definite 
length  of  time.  In  the  monarchies  the  ruler  belongs  to  the  class  of  aris- 
tocrats or  nobles,  is  a  blood  relation  of  a  previous  ruler,  of  his  own  or 
some  other  country,  and  holds  office  for  life.  Most  of  the  monarchies  are 
limited  (p.  36) ;  only  Russia  and  Turkey  are  absolute  or  despotic. 

Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy 
are  the  strongest  and  most  populous  nations  of  Europe,  and  are  often 
called  the  "  Six  Great  Powers." 

Supplemental  Work.  Read  "  The  Story  of  the  Greeks"  and  "  The 
Story  of  the  Romans,"  by  H.  A.  Guerber;  "  The  Story  of  Roland"  and 
"The  Story  of  Siegfried,"  by  James  Baldwin;  "Norse  Stories  retold 
from  the  Eddas,"  by  Hamilton  W.  Mabie ;  and  "  The  Passing  of  Arthur," 
in  Baldwin's  School  Readers,  5th  and  6th  years. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  PRODUCTS. 

All  the  great  industries  are  actively  pursued  in  Europe, 
but  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  working  population  is 
engaged  in  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  commerce. 

Agriculture  affords  occupation  to  more  than  half  the 
people.  It  is  pursued  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Europe  except 
in  the  extreme  north  and  on  the  more  rugged  slopes. 

In  eastern  Europe  the  light  rains  fall  mostly  during  the  summer,  so 
that  crops  grow  well ;  along  the  southern  coasts,  where  the  summers  are 
dry,  irrigation  is  extensively  practiced ;  and  many  of  the  steep  hillsides 
in  all  regions  are  terraced  and  planted.  Thus  more  than  twice  as  much 
land  is  cultivated  as  in  the  United  States,  and  much  larger  quantities  of 


food  crops  are  raised.  There  are  so  many  people  to  be  fed,  however, 
that  in  most  of  the  countries  the  crops  are  insufficient  and  much  food 
must  be  imported. 

The  great  agricultural  regions  are  (1)  the  northern  lowland  from  the 
Atlantic  eastward  through  southern  Russia,  and  (2)  the  broad  fertile 
valleys  of  the  Danube,  the  Po,  the  Rhone,  and  the  streams  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula.  The  northern  region,  including  the  plains  of  Hungary,  yields 
three  fourths  of  the  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes,  and  is  the  chief 
food-producing  belt.  Other  crops  of  this  belt  are  beets,  beans,  cabbages, 
and  the  fibers  flax  and  hemp.  In  southern  Europe  large  quantities  of 
beans,  garlic,  and  other  vegetables  are  raised,  and  much  grain,  including 
corn  and  some  rice,  but  the  characteristic  crop  is  the  grape,  for  this  is 
the  world's  greatest  wine-  and  raisin-producing  region.  Other  important 
crops  of  southern  Europe  are  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  almonds,  and 
chestnuts.  Mulberry  trees  are  also  cultivated  to  afford  food  for  silk- 
worms, which  are  extensively  reared. 

Herding.  There  are  four  times  as  many  sheep  raised 
in  Europe  as  in  the  United  States,  twice  as  many  cattle, 

and  about  as  many  hogs ;  but 
in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion herding  is  not  so  impor- 
tant an  industry  as  it  is  in 
our  country.  Only  four  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  produce 
more  meat  than  the  people 
consume,  and  several  have  to 
import  large  quantities. 

The  great  cattle  and  sheep  pas- 
tures and  dairy  farms  are  mostly  in 
the  northern  food  belt,  but  some  cat- 
tle and  very  many  sheep  and  goats 
are  pastured  in  the  highland  regions. 
Hogs  are  raised  mostly  in  the  for- 
ests, where  they  fatten  on  acorns, 
beechnuts,  and  other  mast. 

Fishing.  The  long  coast 
line  of  Europe  invites  many 
people  to  engage  in  this  industry,  and  the  product  is  more 
than  twice  as  great  as  in  the  United  States. 

The  most  valuable  fisheries  are  those  of  the  northwest  coast,  which  yield 
great  quantities  of  herring,  cod,  mackerel,  and  oysters.  The  south.- 
western  coast  waters  afford  sardines,  anchovies,  and  tunny  fish,  while 
the  seas  and  rivers  in  the  southeast  yield  great  quantities  of  sturgeon, 
from  the  roe  of  which  caviare  is  made. 

The  richest  coral  fisheries  of  the  world  are  along  the  shores  of  the 
mainland  and  of  the  islands  in  the  western  half  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
and  the  best  and  most  extensive  sponge  fisheries  are  in  the  eastern  half 
of  this  sea. 

Lumbering.  The  forests  of  Europe,  though  nearly 
twice  as  extensive  as  those  of  the  United  States,  yield  less 
than  half  as  much  lumber. 

The  chief  lumber  regions  are  northern  Russia,  the  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula, and  the  wooded  slopes  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  but  most 
of  the  highland  regions  in  southern  Europe  are  well  wooded. 

In  nearly  all  the  countries  the  forests  belong  to  the  government  and 
to  a  few  of  the  noble  families,  and  are  carefully  preserved  from  destruc- 
tion. Only  a  certain  amount  of  timber  may  be  cut  each  year,  and  young 
trees  are  planted  to  replace  those  that  are  cut  down.  The  dead  timber, 
windfalls,  and  fagots  are  gathered  for  fuel,  and  thus,  especially  in  western 
Europe,  many  of  these  cultivated  forests  have  come  to  resemble  great 
open  groves,  without  underbrush  and  with  the  trees  planted  in  rows. 
It  is  only  in  the  Balkan  plateau  that  the  forests  are  being  destroyed  by 
indiscriminate  cutting  as  in  the  United  States. 


EUROPE. 


121 


Mining.  All  the  useful  minerals  are  found  in  Europe, 
and  mining  is  an  active  industry  in  many  of  the  countries, 
the  mineral  output  being  almost  twice  as  great  as  that  of 
the  United  States. 

The  mining  of  coal  and  of  iron  ore  is  by  far  the  most  important. 
These  minerals  are  obtained  in  nearly  every  country  of  Europe.  About 
half  of  the  yield  comes  from  the  old  rock  folds  in  the  island  of  Great 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  other  half  comes  from  the  old  and  greatly  eroded 
region  which  extends  northward  from  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathian 
Mountains.  Iron  ore  is  also  obtained  from  the  Spanish  and  Scandina- 
vian plateaus  and  from  the  southern  Urals. 

The  Eurasian  highland  furnishes  a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply  of 
copper,  zinc,  and  quicksilver,  and  some  tin,  lead,  silver,  and  gold.  Salt 
is  obtained  in  many  localities,  and  petroleum  in  great  quantities  along 
the  southern  base  of  the  Caucasus,  and  in  smaller  quantities  along  the 
northeastern  foot  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Manufacturing.  The  great  manufacturing  region  in- 
cludes the  island  of  Great  Britain  and  the  countries  bor- 
dering the  English  Channel  and  the  North  and  Baltic  seas 
on  the  south.  This  region  yields  most  of  the  coal  and  iron ; 
in  it  modern  machinery  is  extensively  employed,  and  about 
two  thirds  of  the  manufactures  are  produced. 

Throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the  western  half  of  Europe  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  this  industry  than  in  the 
United  States,  while  in  the  eastern  half  the  proportion  is  slightly  less 
than  in  our  country.  Except  in  the  great  manufacturing  region,  how- 
ever, manufacturing  is  carried  on  chiefly  "  by  hand"  in  Europe,  so  that 


tive  population 


though  there  are  seven  times  as  many  operatives  in  that  grand  division, 
the  total  value  of  the  manufactured  product  is  only  twice  as  great  as  in 
the  United  States. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  (1)  food  products,  including  butter  and 
cheese,  olive  oil,  and  beet  sugar,  besides  wine,  beer,  and  other  liquors ; 
(2)  cloth  —  cottons,  woolens,  silks,  and  linens ;  (3)  clothing ;  (4)  iron  and 
steel,  including  machinery,  ships,  and  other  iron  articles  of  all  kinds ;  and 
(5)  leather.  Besides  these,  great  quantities  of  glass,  porcelain,  pottery, 
jewelry,  woodenware,  and  nearly  every  other  kind  of  article  used  by 
civilized  man,  are  manufactured  in  Europe. 

Commerce.  The  commerce  of  Europe  is  about  twice 
as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States,  but  foreign  com- 
merce forms  a  much  larger  share  of  the  total  than  it  does 
in  our  country. 

Our  country  is  so  large  that  it  possesses  a  great  variety  of  soils,  cli- 
mates, and  rock  formations,  and  thus  can  produce  an  abundance  of 


nearly  everything  required  by  its  people.  Most  of  the  European  coun- 
tries, however,  are  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  United  States,  and 
are  much  more  thickly  peopled,  so  that  they  do  not  produce  a  sufficient 
variety  or  a  sufficient  quantity  of  articles  for  home  consumption,  and 
hence  have  to  obtain  many  things  from  neighboring  countries  or  from 
other  grand  divisions. 

The  chief  imports  from  other  grand  divisions  are  such  foods  as  tea, 
coffee,  wheat,  and  meat,  and  the  raw  fibers  cotton,  wool,  and  silk, 
which,  when  manufactured  into  cloth,  form  the  chief  exports  to  other 
grand  divisions.  Much  machinery  and  great  quantities  of  tools,  cutlery, 
and  other  iron  and  steel  goods  are  also  exported. 

Water  routes,  both  by  sea  and  by  the  rivers,  are  much  more  exten- 
sively used  in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  all  the  rivers 
have  been  rendered  navigable  and  are  connected  by  canals  with  neigh- 
boring systems ;  thus,  in  the  east,  by  means  of  rivers  and  canals,  boats 
can  pass  from  the  Caspian  or  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Baltic  and  White 
seas,  and  in  the  west  from  the  Mediterranean  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  or 
the  English  Channel.  The  shipping  of  Europe  is  four  times  as  great  as 
that  of  the  United  States,  but  its  railroad  system  is  not  quite  so  extensive 
as  that  of  our  country. 

In  what  part  of  Europe  are  the  railroads  most  numerous  ?  This  part 
conforms  quite  closely  to  the  great  manufacturing  region.  In  what  parts 
are  there  comparatively  few  railroads  1    In  what  parts  are  there  none  ? 


The  great  highland  through  southern  Europe  is  so  broken  that  there  are 
many  places  where  commercial  routes  can  pass  the  ranges.  How  does 
the  distribution  of  railroads  show  the  effect  of  these  ranges?  Com- 
pare the  distribution  of  railroads  in  Europe  with  their  distribution  in  the 
United  States  (p.  60),  and  describe  the  general  differences. 

Wealth  and  Earnings.  How  does  Europe  compare 
with  the  United  States  in  wealth  and  the  earning  power 
of  the  people?  (p.  60.)  Thus,  with  five  times  as  many 
people,  Europe  has  only  three  times  as  much  wealth  as 
our  country,  and  the  average  daily  earnings  of  the  people 
are  less  than  half  as  much. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  people  accumulate  wealth  more  slowly 
in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States.  Not  only  is  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery less  generally  used  in  all  the  great  industries,  but  the  various  in- 
dependent countries,  in  which  different  languages  are  used  and  different 
customs  and  ideals  prevail,  are  constantly  jealous  of  one  another  and 
maintain  great  armies  and  navies,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  go  to  war  at  a 
moment's  notice.  As  a  result  wars  have  been  very  frequent  and  have 
destroyed  much  wealth.  In  addition  to  this,  the  standing  armies 
and  navies  of  Europe  contain  nearly  five  million  men  who  are  practi- 
cally idle,  and  the  wage-earners  are  taxed  to  support  tbem.  Nearly 
every  man  on  the  mainland  of  Europe  must  serve  from  one  to  five  years 


122 


PARTS  OF   THE  EARTH. 


in  the  army  or  navy,  besides  drilling  every  year  during  a  much  longer 
period,  and  while  thus  engaged  he  earns  nothing  at  his  regular  trade. 

Supplemental  Work.  Make  illustrations  showing  what  part  of  the 
people  of  Europe  practice  agriculture ;  how  the  amount  of  cultivated 
land  in  Europe  compares  with  that  in  the  United  States  ;  how  the  cattle 
of  the  two  compare ;  the  fishing  product ;  the  extent  of  forests,  and 
lumber  product;  the  mineral  output;  the  number  of  manufacturing 
hands,  and  the  amount  of  the  product;  the  commerce,  shipping,  and 
railroads ;  the  population,  wealth  and  average  earnings. 


CENTRAL  EUROPE. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 
AND  IRELAND.  This  kingdom  includes  all  the 
British  Isles.  By  what  waters  are  these  isles  sur- 
rounded ?  Name  the  largest  island ;  the  next  in 
size.  By  what  waters  are  these  islands  separated  ? 
Name  three  small  groups  off  the  north  coast  of 
Great  Britain  ;  one  group  off  the  south  coast. 

Name  three  great  indentations  of  the  east  coast 
of  Great  Britain ;  four  of  the  west  coast ;  three 
on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  In  what  part  of  the 
British  Isles  are  there  highlands  ?  Name  the  chief 
ranges.  How  do  these  highlands  compare  in  height 
with  the  Appalachian  Mountains?  The  hills  of 
Ireland  occur  near  the  coast.  The  low  interior 
plain  contains  many  swamps  or  bogs.  The  Shet- 
land Islands  and  the  Hebrides  are  high  and  rocky. 
The  Orkneys  are  low  and  fertile. 

Why  is  the  climate  of  these  islands  milder  and 
moister  than  that  of  the  eastern  coast  of  America 
in  the  same  latitude  ?  The  climate  of  Ireland  is 
especially  mild  and  moist.     Why  ? 

What  three  countries  are  included  in  the  island 
of  Great  Britain?  Describe  the  surface  of  each. 
Name  four  rivers  of  England  ;  two  of  Scotland  ; 
three  of  Ireland. 

Which  of  the  United  States  is  about  as  large  as 
England  ?  Which  is  about  the  size  of  Ireland  ? 
Which  is  about  the  size  of  Scotland  1  How  does 
the  population  of  each  of  these  states  compare 
with  that  of  the  part  of  the  British  Isles  which  it 
about  equals  in  size  ?  The  British  Isles  as  a  whole 
are  densely  peopled,  and  England  is  one  of  the  most . 
densely  peopled  countries  in  the  world. 

Most  of  the  land  in  the  British  Isles  is 
owned  by  a  comparatively  few  rich  fam- 
ilies of  nobles,  and  but  one  fourth  of  it  is 
under  crops.  A  much  larger  proportion 
is  used  for  pasturage,  and  cattle  and 
sheep  raising  are  important  industries, 
Great  Britain  producing  more  mutton 
and  wool  than  any  other  country  in  Eu- 
rope except  Russia.  Grain,  hay,  vegeta- 
bles, some  fruits,  and  much  dairy  prod- 
ucts and  meat  are  produced,  but  only  a 
small  part  of  the  people  are  engaged  in" 
agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits,  and 
food  of  all  kinds  has  to  be  imported  in 
large  quantities. 

More  than  half  of  the  working  popu- 
lation is  engaged  in  manufacturing,  and 
a  large  part  of  the  remainder  in  com- 
merce and  mining,  all  these  industries 
being  most  active  in  England.  In  the 
value  of  her  manufactures  Great  Brit- 
ain exceeds  all  other  countries  except  the  United  States, 
and  in  the  making  of  cotton  and  woolen  cloth  she  greatly 
exceeds  all  other  countries  in  the  world.  The  coal  and 
iron  mines  of  the  British  Isles  are  chiefly  in  northern  and 
southwestern  England  and  in  southern  AVales.  The  coal 
fields,  though  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  United  States, 
yield  about  as  much  coal,  while  the  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures exceed  those  of  any  other  country  except   the 


EUROPE. 


\ 


123 


"United  States.    Lead,  tin,  and  copper  ores  are  also  mined, 
but  not  abundantly. 

The  manufacturing  greatness  of  Great  Britain  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  abundant  supply  of  coal ;  for  raw  materi- 
als—  cotton,  wool,  hides,  iron  ore, 
and  many  others  —  are  imported  in 
large  quantities  from  beyond  sea. 
The  importation  of  these  raw  ma- 
terials and  the  necessary  food  sup- 
plies, and  the  exportation  of  man- 
ufactured goods  and  coal,  give  rise 
to  a  foreign  commerce  twice  as 
great  as  that  of  any  other  country. 
The  greater  part  of  this  commerce, 
besides  much  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  other  countries,  is  carried 


Tower  Bridge,  London. 


The  supreme  power  of  the  empire  is  the  law-making 
branch  of  the  government,  which  is  called  Parliament.  It 
is  something  like  our  Congress,  and  consists  of  a  House 
of  Lords  composed  chiefly  of  the  nobles,  and  a  House  of 

Commons  composed 
of  members  elected 
by  the  people  who 
live  in  the  British 
Isles. 

The  king  is  called 
the  head  of  the  na- 
tion, but  the  execu- 
tive department  really 
consists  of  a  prime 
minister  and  his  asso- 
ciate ministers,  who 
hold  office  during  the 
pleasure  of  the  House 
of  Commons. 


on  in  British  vessels,  for  Great  Britain  owns  nearly  half 
the  shipping  of  the  world. 

Ireland  is  admirably  adapted  for  agriculture,  but  much 
of  the  land  is  owned  by  people  who  live  in  England,  and 
the  laws  have  been  unfavorable  to  the  tenants.  Still,  about 
half  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  farming,  and  they  raise  a 
surplus  of  grain,  potatoes,  and  eggs  to  send  to  Great  Britain. 
In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  island  large  crops  of  flax  are 
raised,  from  which  the  famous  Irish  linens  and  poplins  are 
manufactured.  Much  wool  is  also  produced  and  manu- 
factured chiefly  by  the  aid  of  water  power. 

In  general  wealth  the  United  Kingdom  surpasses  every 

other  country  except  the  United  States. 

\ 

Prior  to  the  year  1100  Great  Britain  was  invaded  and  occupied  by 
various  nationalities ;  and  hence  its  people  are  of  mixed  descent.  They 
are  mostly  the  descendants  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  and  of  the  Nor- 
mans, a  people  of  mixed  Latin  and  Teutonic  blood.  The  descendants  of 
the  Celts,  who  were  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles,  still,  live 
in  Wales,  in  Ireland,  and  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland. 

The  British  have  been  the  most  successful  colonizers  in  the  world. 
During  the  last  300  years  they  have  planted  colonies  in  every  one  of  the 
grand  divisions,  and  in  many  islands  of  the  sea,  so  that  now  the  British 
possessions  include  nearly  one  fifth  of  the  land  surface  and  one  quarter 
of  the  people  of  the  earth.  What  is  their  chief  American  possession? 
Other  important  possessions  are  India,  Australia,  and  southern  Africa. 

The  United  Kingdom  and  the  colonial  possessions  form 
the  British  Empire. 


Bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth,  Scotland. 

London,  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire,  contains  as 
many  people  as  New  York  city  and  Philadelphia  together, 
and  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  It  is  the  world's 
greatest  commercial  and  financial  center.  It  lies  on  both 
banks  of  the  Thames,  across  which  are  many  bridges.  The 
harbor,  formed  by  the  broad  estuary  of  the  river,  is  fifty 
miles  long.  The  trade  is  mostly  with  Asia  and  the  Euro- 
pean mainland,  and  the  imports  greatly  exceed  the  exports. 
Glasgow,  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom  in  size,  and  the 
third  in  importance  as  a  seaport,  is  the  great  center  of 
Scottish  trade  and  manufacture.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  iron  and  steel  ships  and  machinery,  cotton  and  linen 
cloth,  carpets,  and  pottery.  Liverpool,  the  third  city,  is 
somewhat  larger  than  Boston,  and  is  the  great  seaport  for 
the  manufacturing  region  of  England.  The  trade  is  largely 
with  America,  Australia,  and  South  Africa,  the  exports 
being  chiefly  cloth  and  hardware,  and  the  imports  cotton, 
wool,  and  food  stuffs. 

East  from  Liverpool  across  England  is  an  almost  con- 
tinuous succession  of  great  manufacturing  cities.  Among 
them  the  largest  is  Manchester,  the  world's  greatest  cotton- 
manufacturing  center ;  Leeds,  noted  for  its  woolen  manu- 


124 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


f  actures ;  and  Birmingham  and  Sheffield,  noted  for  machin- 
ery, cutlery,  and  hardware.    Hull  is  the  important  seaport 


Edinburgh  Castle. 

for  the  trade  of  this  region  with  the  Euro- 
pean mainland.  Newcastle,  on  the  Tyne,  and 
Cardiff  are  great  shipbuilding  and  iron- 
manufacturing  centers  and  coal-exporting 
points.  Edinburgh,  the  seat  of  the  local  gov- 
ernment of  Scotland,  and  Dublin,  of  Ireland, 
are  important  cities,  and  Belfast  is  the  center 
of  the  Irish  linen  manufacture. 

THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.    What  seas  and  coun- 
tries border  the  German  Empire  ?  (p.  127. )    Describe 
its  surface.  Name  five  rivers  of  its  northern  slope;  one 
of  its  southern  slope.    Locate  its  chief  mountains.    Compare  it  with  the 
British  Isles  in  area  and  population  (p.  157) ;  with  Texas.    What  part 
of  the  United  States  is  in  the  same  latitude  ? 

The  southern  half  of  the  German  Empire  lies  on  the 
Alpine  plateau,  from  which  rise  several  groups  of  low 
and  much  worn  volcanic  mountains.  The  sandy  low- 
lands of  the  north  are  covered  with  the  drift  of  the  old 
Scandinavian  glacier. 

The  Rhine  is  the  great  river  of  Germany.  It  has  cut  through  the  pla- 
teau a  narrow,  picturesque  valley,  whose  steep  side  slopes  are  terraced 
for  vineyards  and  are  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  old  castles.  In  its  lower 
course  the  river  has  deposited  a  broad  flood  plain,  which  is  covered  with 
meadows  and  fertile  fields. 

About  nine  tenths  of  all  the  land  in  Germany  is  produc- 
tive. Large  areas  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  grain, 
and  the  sandy  soil  in  other  places  yields  an  abundance 
of  potatoes  and  sugar  beets.  Much  of  the  southern  high- 
land is  covered  with  forests,  which  are  an  important  source 
of  revenue,  and  the  river  valleys  are  noted  for  their  vine- 
yards. Rye  is  the  grain  most  grown,  and  the  commonest 
food  of  the  people  is  a  dark  rye  bread. 

Among  European  countries,  Germany  ranks  next  to 
Great  Britain  in  the  production  of  coal  and  iron  ore;  and 
it  exceeds  all  other  countries  in  the  world  in  the  produc- 
tion of  zinc.  Copper,  lead,  silver,  sand  for  glass,  clay  for 
porcelain,  and  salt  are  also  obtained. 

Like  England,  Germany  is  a  great  manufacturing  na- 
tion.   More  food  products  are  manufactured  than  in  any 


other  country  except  the  United  States,  chiefly  liquors  and 
beet  sugar.  Most  of  the  sugar  used  in  Europe  is  made  in 
Germany.  The  manufacture  of  woolens,  cottons,  silks,  and 
linens  ranks  next  in  importance. 

Iron  and  steel  and  all  kinds  of  hardware  are  extensively 
made,  especially  in  the  west,  and  porcelain  and  wooden 
articles  are  also  important  manufactures. 

Commerce  is  very  active.  There  are  more  railroads  in 
Germany  than  in  any  other  country  except  the  United 
States.  Nearly  all  the  rivers  are  navigable  and  are  con- 
nected by  canals.  Even  the  Danube  is  thus  connected 
with  the  Rhine,  through  the  river  Main.  There  is  also  a 
great  ship  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  the  Danish  penin- 
sula, connecting  the 
Baltic  Sea  and  the 
North  Sea. 

The  German  soldiers  are 
said  to  be  the  finest  in  Eu- 
rope. Everymanmust  serve 
in  the  army  at  least  a  year, 
and  this  period  of  service 
may  be  much  extended. 
The  Germans  are  also  cele- 
brated for  their  learning. 
The  German  Empire 
consists  of  twenty-two  sep- 
arate states,  the  free  towns 
of  Lubeck,  Bremen,  and 
Hamburg,  and  the  terri- 
tory of  Alsace-Lorraine. 
The  largest  of  the  states 
is  Prussia,  which  includes 
more  than  half  of  the  entire  population.  The  King  of  Prussia  is  also  the 
Emperor,  or  Kaiser,  of  Germany.  He  is  the  chief  executive.  The  laws 
are  made  by  an  imperial  parliament,  consisting  of  a  Bundesrath  composed 
of  members  appointed  by  the  local  governments  of  the  various  states,  and 
a  Reichstag  composed  of  representatives  elected  by  the  people. 

Many  thousand  Germans  have  settled  in  the  United  States,  and  Ger- 
man merchants  are  found  in  nearly  all  newly  settled  countries.     The 
foreign  dependencies  of  Germany  comprise  extensive  regions  in  Africay 
possessions  in  Oceania,  and  a  settlement  in  China. 

The  small  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  between  Germany  and  Belgium, 
is  declared  by  treaty  between  the  Great  Powers  to  be  neutral  or  inde- 
pendent, but  commercially  it  is  very  closely  united  with  Germany. 


Jaunting  car,  Dublin. 


1      % 

'    --       '       eH 

-"Pi 

ISP     aR^                                            v   a^H 

'^ 

T^ 

A  castle  on  the  Rhine. 


EUROPE. 


125 


A  street  in  Berlin. 

Find  the  capital  of  Germany.  It  is  the  largest  city  of 
the  empire.  Because  of  its  museums,  libraries,  and  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  the  Germans  call  it  the  "City  of 
Intelligence."  On  what  river  is  Hamburg?  Where  is 
Bremen  f  Most  of  the  trade  between  Germany  and  the 
United  States  is  carried  on  through  these  ports.  Munich 
and  Dresden  contain  famous  collections  of  pictures,  and 
fine  porcelain  ware  is  made  at  a  town  near  Dresden. 
Leipzig  is  famous  for  its  great  book-publishing  houses. 
Breslau  and  Cologne  are  great  cotton-manufacturing  cen- 
ters.   Essen  is  the  center  jof  the  iron  and  steel  industry. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS,  OR  HOLLAND. 

Bound  the  Netherlands.  What  sea  indents  the  coast  ?  What  river  delta 
crosses  the  southern  part?  What  is  peculiar  about  the  elevation  of 
the  western  part  of  the  kingdom  ?  (p.  127.)  Compare  its  area  and  pop- 
ulation with  those  of  Germany. 

The  Netherlands,  or  "lowlands,"  is  composed  chiefly 
of  alluvium  deposited  by  the  Rhine.  The  rich  soil  makes 
perhaps  the  most  fertile  farm  and  pasture  land  of  Europe. 
Although  grain  must  be  imported,  there  is  a  large  surplus 
of  dairy  products  for  export.     The  fisheries  are  valuable. 

Shipbuilding  and  the  making  of  bricks  and  pottery  give 
employment  to  a  great  many  persons.  Butter  and  cheese, 
sugar  and  starch,  and  linen  and  cotton  goods,  are  among 
the  leading  manufactures. 

The  sea  and  rivers  would  overflow  nearly  half  of  Holland  to  a  depth 
of  ten  feet  or  more,  but  for  the  dikes,  or  embankments,  which  the  people 
have  built  to  protect  their  lands.  The  surface 
water  of  these  lowlands  is  collected  in  ditches 
and  canals  which  intersect  the  whole  country, 
and  is  pumped  out  by  means  of  steam  power 
and  by  hundreds  of  windmills.  The  many 
miles  of  canal  serve  as  highways  of  travel,  by 
boat  in  summer  and  by  sledge  or  skates  in 
winter. 

With  its  numerous  canals  and  railroads,  Hol- 
land has  a  large  domestic  commerce,  and  it 
ranks  fourth  among  the  nations  of  Europe  in 
foi-eign  commerce.  The  exports  include  not 
only  home  products  and  manufactures,  but  also 
the  spices,  coffee,  chocolate,  and  other  mer-  Milk  cart, 


A  scene  in  Rotterdam. 

chandise  derived  from  the  country's  foreign  possessions  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies  and  in  South  America. 

The  people  of  Holland  are  called  the  Dutch.  They  are  noted  for  their 
cleanliness,  industry,  and  thrift. 

Amsterdam  is  the  largest  city.  The  houses  are  built  on 
piles,  and  canals  which  run  through  many  of  the  streets 
divide  the  city  into  about  ninety  islands. 

More  than  half  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country 
passes  through  Rotterdam,  which  is  the  greatest  seaport 
on  the  mainland  of  Europe.     What  is  the  capital  ? 

■~1  ■ 

'  THE  KINGDOM  OF  DENMARK.  Bound  Denmark.  Of  what  nat- 
ural divisions  of  land  is  it  composed  ?  Name  the  peninsula ;  the  largest 
island.    Compare  Denmark  with  New  Jersey  in  area. 

The  surface  of  Denmark  is  somewhat  more  hilly  than 
that  of  the  Netherlands.  There  are  salt  marshes  in  the 
west,  and  the  coast  is  bordered  by  shifting  dunes.  Parts 
of  the  country  are  covered  with  beech  forests ;  the  soil  is 
fertile,  and  farming,  the  raising  of  cattle  and  hogs,  and 
dairying  are  the  leading  industries. 

The  land  is  not  held  in  large  estates,  but  is  divided  into  small  farms, 
many  of  which  are  owned  by  the  peasants.  Compare  this  with  the  way 
land  is  held  in  England ;  in  Ireland. 

Denmark  is  celebrated  for  its  butter,  which,  with  meat,  forms  its  chief 
export.    Most  of  the  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 

Find  the  Faroe  Islands,  northwest  of  the  British  Isles.  These,  with 
Iceland,  Greenland,  and  three  of  the  West  Indies,  are  Danish  possessions. 

Where  is  Copenhagen?  It  is  about  the  same  size  as 
Cleveland  and  is  the  only  large  city  of  Denmark. 

THE  KINGDOMS  0^  NORWAY  AND 
SWEDEN.  What  peninsula  do  these  king- 
doms occupy?  (p.  118.)  Describe  their  sur- 
face ;  their  drainage.  Compare  their  eastern 
and  western  coasts.  Name  their  chief  moun- 
tain ranges.  On  which  slope  are  there  most 
lakes?    Name  two  of  these  lakes. 

Norway  is  mostly  a  mountainous 
plateau  which   extends  to  the  west 
coast,  where  it  is  much  indented  with 
deep,  narrow  fiords,  at  the  heads  of 
Holland.  which  glaciers  descend  to  the  sea. 


£o  K>v 


126 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Sweden  slopes  gradually  to  the 
east,  and  is  covered  with  glacial 
drift.  It  abounds  in  lakes  and 
waterfalls,  like  New  England. 
Why?  (p.  50.) 

Fishing  and  lumbering  are  the 
most  important  industries  in  Nor- 
way;   and    agriculture,    dairying, 
lumbering,  and  the  mining  of  iron  ore  in  Sweden.  The  lead- 
ing manufactures  are  wooden  ware,  hardware,  and  fish  oil. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  these  countries  is  with  Great  Britain 
and  Germany.  Their  commercial  fleet  is  large,  but  much 
of  its  work  consists  in  carrying  goods  between  other 
countries. 

Norway  and  Sweden  are  under  the  same  king,  but  each  country  has  its 
own  parliament. 

The  Norwegians,  Swedes,  and  Danes  are  closely  related,  and  are  called 
Scandinavians.  Their  languages  are  much  alike.  In  the  north  are  many 
Lapps  and  Finns  who  belong  to  the  Turkish  branch  of  the  yellow  race. 

Norway  and  Sweden  are  the  most  sparsely  settled  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, and  yet  the  population  is  about  as  dense  as  in  the  southeastern 
United  States.  Many  of  the  farmers  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  are 
natives  of  the  Scandinavian  countries. 

Name  and  locate  the  capital  of  each  country.  Stock- 
holm, about  the  size  of  Detroit,  is  the  largest  city  on  the 
peninsula,  and  is  a  center  of  iron  manufacture.  Gothen- 
burg and  Christiania  have  cotton  and  woolen  factories  and 
lumber  mills.    Bergen  is  the  center  of  a  great  fish  trade. 

MONARCHY  OF  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  Bound  Austria-Hun- 
gary. Name  its  mountain  ranges.  What  river  valley  occupies  its  cen- 
tral part  ?  Through  what  part  of  the  country  does  the  European  divide 
pass  ?    On  what  waters  does  the  only  seacoast  of  the  country  border  ?    * 

Mountain  ranges  surround  and  cross  Austria-Hungary, 
and  nearly  inclose  the  low,  fertile  plains  of  Hungary.  The 
Danube  enters  and  leaves  these  plains  through  gaps  which 
it  has  cut  in  the  mountains. 

The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture,  and  grain,  flax,  and 
hemp,  as  well  as  olives  and  grapes,  are  raised.  This  is  the 
only  European  country  which  has  a  surplus  for  export  of 
all  the  great  food  products  —  grain,  meat,  dairy  products, 


Parliament  building,  Vienna. 


and  wine.  The  rearing  of  silkworms  is  an  important 
industry  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
cutting  of  lumber  in  the  east,  while  in  the  north  much 
iron,  coal,  silver,  and  rock  salt  are  mined.  In  the  north- 
west is  a  busy  manufacturing  region,  in  which  cloth,  iron 
and  steel  goods,  fine  Bohemian  glass,  porcelain,  and  pianos 
are  made.  Much  weaving  and  spinning  by  hand  are  also 
done  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  much  wine  is  made, 
especially  in  Hungary. 
With  its  short  seacoast  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which  is 

separated  by  mountain 

ranges  from  the  rest  of 
the  country,  Austria- 
Hungary  has  compara- 
tively little  shipping 
or  sea-borne  commerce, 
but  it  has  a  large 
overland  trade  with 
surrounding  countries, 
chiefly  by  railroad,  but 
to  some  extent  by  the 
Danube  Eiver. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country  the  population  and 
language  are  mostly  Slavonic, 
though  there  are  also  many 
people  of  the  yellow  race. 
Austria-Hungary  consists  of  several  provinces  formerly  separate,  but 
now  united  as  the  two  states  of  Austria  and  Hungary  under  one  mon- 
arch. Each  state  has  its  own  constitution  and  its  own  parliament,  and 
sends  delegates  to  a  general  parliament  by  which  affairs  of  common  inter- 
est are  controlled.  The  little  Principality  of  Liechtenstein,  between  Austria 
and  Switzerland,  and  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
in  the  south,  are  practically  parts  of  Austria-Hungary. 

Vienna  is  a  brilliant  and  beautiful  capital,  and  the 
fourth  city  of  Europe  in  size.    It  is  a  great  educational 
center.     Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  an  impor- 
tant grain  market  and  milling  center.    Prague  is  in  the**" 
manufacturing  region.     Trieste  is  the  chief  seaport. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SWITZERLAND.  By  what  countries  is  Swit- 
zerland surrounded  ?  Describe  its  surface.  Name  the  two  largest  lakes 
in  the  Alpine  plateau.  What  four  great  rivers  receive  drainage  from 
Switzerland? 

Switzerland  is  much  visited  by  tourists  in  summer,  be- 
cause of  its  high  snow-covered  mountains,  its  great  gla- 
ciers, which  creep  down  into  the  green  valleys,  its  glacier- 
made  lakes,  and  its  beautiful  waterfalls. 

The  land  is  utilized  to  the  snow  limit,  largely  for  pas- 
tures, and  cattle  raising  is  a  leading  industry.  While  some 
grapes,  grain,  and  vegetables  are  raised,  much  of  the  food 
is  imported,  except  dairy  products  —  of  these  there  is  a 
large  surplus  for  export,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  cheese  and 
condensed  milk. 

Switzerland  is  an  active  manufacturing  region,  though 
most  of  the  articles  are  handmade.  Almost  every  house 
is  a  miniature  factory.  Textiles,  embroideries,  plaited 
straw,  watches  and  clocks,  and  carved  wood  are  among 
the  manufactured  products. 


Scale,  133  miles  to  one  Inch,  same  as  the  maps 
northern  Section,  Southern  Section,  Hateau  Section- 
Pacific  Section,  British  Isles,  and  Southwestern  Europ 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

100  So 

The  highlands  above  2000  feet  are  shown  in  the  buff  tint; 
the  lowlands  above  sea  level  in  the  green  tints,  and  the  low 
lands  below  sea  level  in  the  purple  tint 


10  Longitud 


128 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Alps,  Switzerland. 


Railroad  routes  follow  the  Rhine, 
Rhone,  and  Inn  valleys.  To  what 
country  does  each  of  these  routes 
give  acces.??  The  longest  railroad 
tunnel  in  the  world  has  been  made 
under  the  St.  Gotthard  pass  into 
Italy. 

The  Swiss  people  are  of  mixed 
descent.  German  language  and  cus- 
toms prevail  in  the  north,  French  in 
the  west,  and  Italian  in  the  south. 

Zurich,  the  largest  city,  is  a 
bustling  manufacturing  town, 
producing  chiefly  leather  and 
silk  goods.  Geneva  is  noted 
for  watch  maki  ng.  Basel  man- 
ufactures silk  ribbons.  Bern 
is  the  capital  and  chief  rail- 
road center. 

Supplemental  Work.    Find  out 
about  William  E.  Gladstone ;  Prince 
Bismarck ;  Prince  Metternich ;  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus ;  William  the  Silent ; 
Thorwaldsen;  Hans  Christian  An- 
dersen.   Read  one  of  the  following:  "Story  of  the  English,"  by  H.  A. 
Guerber;  "Tom  Brown's  School  Days,"  by  Hughes;  "David  Copper- 
field,"  by  Dickens;  "  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  by  Scott;  "  Kidnapped," 
by  R.  L.  Stevenson ;  "  Adventures  in  Thule,"  by  Black ;  "  Orange  and 
Green,"  by  G.  A.  Henty ;  "  Irish  Idylls,"  by  Jane  Barlow ;  "  With  Fred- 
erick the  Great,"  by  Henty;  "Our  Young  Folks  in  Norway,"  by  A.  M. 
Kellogg;  "The  Lion  of  the  North,"  by  Henty;  "Hans  Brinker,"  by  M. 
M.  Dodge ;  "  Three  Vassar  Girls  in  Switzerland "  and  "  Three  Vassar 
Girls  in  the  Tyrol,"  by  Champney ;  "  Wonder  Stories  of  Travel,"  by  E. 
McCormick,  and  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places."    Begin  a  scrapbook 
of  clippings  and  pictures  about  Europe,  especially  in  its  relations  to  the 
United  States.  A-Jtd    ~ft 

SOUTHWESTERN  EUROPE. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  BELGIUM.  By  what  countries  and  sea  is 
Belgium  bordered  1  (pp.  131,  118.)  Compare  it  in  area  and  population 
with  the  other  countries  of  Europe ;  with  Massachusetts. 

Belgium   is   the   most  densely  populated  country  of 
Europe.    The  greater  part  is  a  low,  fertile  plain,  much 
like  Holland.  Agriculture  is  here  the  chief 
occupation.    Rye,  wheat,  flax,  beets,  and 
beans  are  raised,  yet  nearly  half  the  food 
must  be  imported. 

In  the  south  the  land  is  poor,  hilly,  and 
forest-covered,  but  contains  rich  mines  of 
coal  and  iron,  and  here  manufacturing  is 
the  leading  industry.  Belgium  is  famous 
for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  and 
hardware.  Woven  goods  —  carpets,  wool- 
ens, linens,  and  lace — are  also  made. 

In  the  north  the  people  are  Germanic 
and  speak  Flemish,  a  language  much  like 
the  Dutch.  In  the  south  the  people  are 
like  the  French  in  race,  language,  and 
customs. 

Brussels  is  a  fine  city,  noted  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  lace,  carpets,  linens,  ribbons, 
and  embroideries.    Antwerp  is  one  of  the  French  peasants 


chief  seaports  of  continental  Europe.  Ghent 
is  the  chief  seat  of  cotton  weaving  and 
leather  manufacturing  in  Belgium.  Liege, 
in  the  iron  and  coal  region,  is  noted  for  the 
making  of  firearms. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  FRANCE.  Bound  France. 
Describe  its  surface,  naming  the  mountains  (p.  131). 
Trace  through  it  the  main  European  divide.  What 
four  rivers  are  on  the  northwestern  slope?  What 
river  is  on  the  southeastern  1  From  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhone  trace  a  route  by  river  and  canal  to  Bordeaux 
on  the  Garonne ;  to  Nantes  on  the  Loire ;  to  Havre  on 
the  Seine ;  to  Strassburg  on  the  Rhine.  What  large 
island  is  part  of  France?  From  p.  157,  compare 
France  in  size  and  population  with  the  largest  state  in 
our  Union.  How  does  France  compare  with  other 
European  countries  in  density  of  population  ? 


Palace  of  Justice,  Brussels. 

France  is  about  twice  as  large  as  the  British  Isles,  and 

is  a  much  more  important  agricultural  country.    On  th^ 

prairie  lands  of  northern  France  more  wheat  is  raised 

than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  except  Russia,  and 

almost  three  fourths  as  much  as  in  the  United  States. 

Great  crops  of  sugar  beets,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables 

are  also  cultivated,  and  thousands  of  cattle 

and  sheep  are  raised.    The  grape  is  a  lead- 

ingproductof  central  and  southern  France. 

In  the  south,  olives  also  are  grown,  as  well 

as  very  many  mulberry  trees — for  rearing 

silkworms  is  an  important  industry.    In 

spite  of  its  great  agricultural  industries, 

France  is  obliged  to  import  both  grain  and 

meat,  though  there  is  a  surplus  of  dairy 

products  and  wine  for  export. 

There  are  several  small  coal  fields  in 
the  east  and  north,  and  some  iron  mines 
in  the  same  region,  but  mining  is  not 
nearly  so  important  in  France  as  in  either 
Great  Britain  or  Germany. 

Next  to  the  British,  the  French  are  the 
chief  cloth  makers  of  Europe,  and  they 
are  the  foremost  manufacturers  of  silks 
and  velvets.    They  also  make  about  one 


EUROPE. 


129 


The  river  Seine  at  Paris. 

fourth   of   the  world's   product  of  wine.     Among  other 
French  manufactures  are  fine  carpets  and  porcelain  ware, 
steel    goods,   chemicals,   olive    oil,   chocolate,   and  fancy 
■  articles.  •     \ 

Among  the  countries  of  Europe,  France  ranks  next  after 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  as  a  commercial  nation. 

Foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  from  the  northern,  western,  and 
southern  coasts  by  sea,  as  well  as  across  the  eastern  boundary  by  means 
of  railroads,  rivers,  and  canals.  One  of  the  longest  railroad  tunnels  in  the 
world,  near  Mont  Cenis  in  the  Alps,  gives  access  to  the  basin  of  the  Po 
and  northern  Italy.  The  chief  exports  are  wines,  silks,  velvets,  woolens, 
and  fancy  articles,  while  the  chief  imports  are  raw  materials,  metals, 
food,  and  petroleum. 

The  French  are  noted  for  their  vivacity,  intelligence,  and  thrift. 
Their  earnings  and  wealth  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other  people  on 
the  mainland  of  Europe.  What  colonial  possessions  has  France  in  the 
western  hemisphere  ?  Her  chief  possessions  in  the  eastern  hemisphere 
are  in  northern  and  western  Africa,  the  island  of  Madagascar,  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Indo-China.  •  , 

Andorra,  a  small  republic  in  the  Pyrenees,  is  largely  under  the  joint  in- 
fluence of  France  and  a  Spanish  bishop.  Monaco  is  a  tiny  independent 
principality  near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  France. 

Where  is  Paris  ?  Compare  its  latitude  with  that  of  an 
American  city.  It  is  the  third  city  of  the  world  in  popu- 
lation, but  it  probably  surpasses  all  others  in  magnificence 
and  beauty.  It  is  a  great  center  of  music,  art,  and  learning. 
It  is  an  important  railroad  center  and  has  water  communi- 
cation with  its  port,  Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine. 

Lyons  is  about  as  large  as  Boston,  and  is  the  center  of 
the  silk  manufacture.  Marseilles  is  the  greatest  port  on 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Bordeaux  is  the  great  shipping 
point  for  wines.  At  Lisle  flax  and  hemp  are  made  into 
yarn,  and  beets  into  sugar.  St.  Etienne,  in  a  region  of 
coal  and  iron  mines,  is  the  great  iron-  and  steel-manu- 
facturing city  of  France. 

THE  KINGDOMS  OF  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  What  penin- 
sula do  these  countries  occupy?  Describe  its  location  and  surface. 
Locate  the  chief  mountains.  Trace  the  main  divide.  Name  four  rivers 
of  the  Atlantic  slope ;  one  of  the  Mediterranean  slope.  What  part  of 
the  peninsula  is  occupied  by  Spain ;  by  Portugal  ?  The  Balearic  Isles 
form  a  part  of  Spain.    How  does  the  peninsula  compare  with  California 


in  position ;  in  latitude  ;  in  rainfall?  (pp.  54,  114.)     In  what  part  is  the 
population  most  dense  ?    Name  the  capital  of  each  country. 

The  uplands  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  are  too  dry  for 
agriculture,  which  is  confined  to  the  moister  seaward  slopes 
and  to  the  deep  river  valleys,  where  irrigation  is  possible. 
Only  about  one  fourth  of  the  land  is  cultivated.  Some 
grain  is  raised,  chiefly  wheat,  barley,  and  corn,  but  not 
enough  for  home  consumption.  The  grape,  however,  is 
extensively  cultivated,  as  well  as  onions,  garlic,  tomatoes, 
peas,  and  beans.  There  are  forests  of  cork  oak,  and  groves 
of  the  best  olives,  and  the  mulberry,  almond,  orange,  fig, 
and  peanut  are  grown. 

The  uplands  and  mountain  slopes  afford  pasturage  for 
millions  of  sheep  and  goats  and  for  smaller  herds  of  cattle ; 
and  the  sardine  and  tunny  fisheries  of  the  coast  waters 
are  very  valuable. 

Mining  is  an  important  industry,  and  Spain  leads  Eu- 
rope in  the  production  of  copper,  lead,  and  quicksilver. 

Where  is  Almaden  ?  Its  quicksilver  mines  are  among  the  richest  in 
the  world.  Where  is  Bilbao  f  Much  iron  ore  is  obtained  in  its  vicinity. 
As  there  is  but  little  coal  in  the  peninsula,  much  ore  is  shipped  from  this 
port  to  Great  Britain  to  be  smelted. 

The  most  important  manufactures  are  wine  and  raisins, 
for  which  the  peninsula  is  famous,  and  which  are  largely 
exported,  together  with  olive  oil,  dried  fruits,  canned  fish, 
corks,  and  leather.  Other  manufactures  are  textiles,  paper 
made  from  esparto  grass,  soap,  and  some  metal  goods. 

While  Spain  ranks  fifth  among  the  European  nations  in 
shipping,  the  vessels  are  largely  engaged  in  the  coasting 
trade,  in  the  .fisheries,  or  in  carrying  goods  for  other 
countries,  for  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  peninsula  is  not 
large.     There  is  an  active  domestic  trade,  however,  both 


Spanish  ox  carts. 

along  the  coasts  and  by  the  rivers  and  the  canals  and  rail- 
roads which  follow  the  river  valleys  through  the  plateau. 

What  parts  of  America  did  Spain  and  Portugal  once  own  1  (pp.  49, 
107.)  Spain  once  held  the  Philippine  Islands  also  (p.  142) ;  and  she  now 
owns  a  strip  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  the  volcanic  Canary  Islands  off 
that  coast,  and  some  other  small  oceanic  islands. 


130 


PARTS   OP  THE  EARTH. 


The  colonial  possessions  of  Portugal  are  more  extensive,  and  include 
the  Azores  (p.  155),  Madeira,  and  Cape  Verde  Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  large 
parts  of  both  the  east  and  the  west  coasts  of  Africa,  and  small  tracts  of 
coast  in  southeastern  Asia. 

Where  is  Madrid?  Although  on  the  dry  and  barren 
plateau,  it  is  about  as  populous  as  Baltimore,  and  is  the 
great  railroad  center  and  largest  city  of  the  peninsula. 
Barcelona  is  the  chief  manufacturing  center  and  the  chief 
seaport  of  Spain.  Valencia  manufactures  silk  and  velvet 
and  exports  fruits,  oil,  and  wine  produced  in  the  fertile 
region  behind  it.  Seville,  at  the  head  of  tide  water  on  the 
Guadalquivir,  is  a  busy  port,  and  has  manufactories  of  silk 
and  of  iron.    Malaga  exports  grapes,  wine,  and  raisins. 

Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  is  the  second  city  of  the 
peninsula  in  size,  and  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the 
world.  Where  is  Oporto  ?  It  is  a  great  shipping  point  for 
wine.  The  name  "port"  wine  is  a  contraction  of  the 
name  of  this  city. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  ITALY.  What  countries  and  waters  border 
Italy  ?  What  mountains  border  or  traverse  it  ?  What  river  basin  is  in 
the  north?  These  lowlands  are  often  called  the  plains  of  Lombardy. 
The  great  islands  Sicily  and  Sardinia  and  several  smaller  neighboring 
islands  form  part  of  Italy.  Find  Mount  Vesuvius,  on  the  peninsula. 
It  is  the  only  active  volcano  on  the  mainland  of  Europe.  But  Mount 
Etna,  in  Sicily,  Stromboli,  and  Vulcano,  one  of  the  Lipari  Islands, 
are  also  active  volcanoes.  How  does  Italy  rank  among  the  countries  of 
Europe  in  density  of  population?  How  does  it  compare  with  the 
United  States  in  this  particular?  Because  it  is  sheltered  by  the  Alps 
from  north  and  northwest  winds,  Italy  has  an  exceptionally  warm 
climate  for  its  latitude.  The  rainfall  is  abundant  in  the  fall  and  winter, 
but  the  summers,  especially  in  the  south,  are  quite  dry. 


A  large  part  of  the  land 
is  cultivated  by  the  aid  of 
irrigation,  and  half  the 
people  are  engaged  in  ag- 
riculture. Much  wheat 
and  corn  are  grown,  and 
in  the  Po  valley  some 
rice,  but  grain  must  also 
be  imported.    Vineyards 


■■■■■■ 


■  .■■■■■!" 


Macaroni  and  fruit  stand,  Naples. 


are  numerous  and  extensive,  and  thousands  of  mulberry 
trees  are  cultivated,  for  Italy  is  one  of  the  greatest  wine- 
and  silk-producing  countries  in  the  world.  On  the  slopes 
of  the  Apennines  are  chestnut  and  olive  trees,  and  figs, 
lemons,  oranges,  and  citrons  are  largely  raised. 

Wonderful  crops  of  grass  and  other  forage  are  produced 
in  the  Po  valley,  and  so  many  cattle  are  raised  that  there 
is  a  surplus  of  meat  for  export.  The  fisheries  afford  an 
important  part  of  the  food  supply. 

The  most  important  mineral  product  of  Italy  is  sulphur, 
from  the  sides  of  the  volcano  Mount  Etna,  but  excellent 
iron  ore  is  mined  on  the  island  of  Elba,  and  fine  marble  is 
quarried  on  the  mainland.  Much  fine  coral  is  obtained 
from  the  coast  waters. 

More  than  one  fourth  of  the  people  of  Italy  are  engaged 
in  manufacturing,  chiefly  by  hand,  and  mainly  in  the  reel- 
ing of  raw  silk  from  the  cocoons,  though  much  silk  is  also 
spun  and  woven  on  hand  looms.  Other  important  indus- 
tries are  the  making  of  wine,  macaroni,  glass,  and  mosaics, 
and  the  cutting  of  coral  and  shells  for  jewelry. 

Italy  has  some  sea-borne  foreign  commerce,  but  most  of  the  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  by  railroad  through  the  Mont  Cenis  and  St.  Gotthard 
tunnels.     The  chief  exports  are  raw  silk,  wine,  olive  oil,  and  sulphur. 

Italy  has  colonial  possessions  in  East  Africa,  but  is  not  a  great  colon- 
izing country.  Many  Italians  emigrate  ;  some  come  to  the  United  States, 
but  most  of  them  go  to  the  South  American  republics  of  Argentina  and 
Brazil  (pp.  108, 109). 

San  Marino  is  a  small  independent  republic  in  eastern  Italy. 

Where  is  Rome?    It  is  the  capital,   and,  because  of  S 
its  ancient  greatness,   the  most  famous  of   the  Italian 

cities,  though  it  ranks  second  in 
population.  Among  its  noted 
buildings  are  the  Pope's  palace, 
called  the  Vatican,  with  its  mag-*- 
nificent  collection  of  paintings 
and  statuary ;  St.  Peter's,  the 
largest  church  in  the  world ;  and 
many  famous  ruins. 

Naples,  the  largest  city  of 
Italy,  is  somewhat  larger  than 
Boston.  It  is  the  commercial 
center  of  the  kingdom,  and  one 
of  the  most  crowded  cities  of  Eu- 
rope. Milan  and  Turin  are  beau- 
tiful cities,  and  the  commercial 
and  manufacturing  centers  of 
northern  Italy.  Where  is  Pa- 
lermo t  Genoa  f  Venice  f  These  are  all  important  sea-  ' 
ports.  Genoa  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  Columbus. 
Venice  is  built  on  a  number  of  small  islands,  and  its  main 
thoroughfares  are  canals  instead  of  streets.  Florence  is 
noted  for  its  art  treasures  and  its  romantic  history. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out  about  Napoleon  Bonaparte ;  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella ;  Garibaldi.  Find  who  are  the  present  rulers  in  the 
countries  of  Europe.  Read  "  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,"  by  Dickens ; 
"Young  Franc-tireurs,"  by  Henty;  "A  Child's  History  of  Spain,"  by 
J.  Bonner ;  "  A  Vagabond  in  Spain,"  by  C.  B.  Luffmann ;  "  Held  Fast 
for  England,"  by  Henty  ;  "  The  Improvisatore,"  by  Andersen ;  "  The 
Lion  of  St.  Mark's,"  by  Henty ;  "  Stories  of  Other  Lands,"  by  Johonnot. 


Part  of  Venice. 


132 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


EASTERN  EUROPE. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  GREECE.  By  what  country  and  waters  is 
Greece  bordered?  (p.  118.)  What  can  you  say  of  its  coast  line?  The 
kingdom  includes  some  islands  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  Grecian  or 
Mge&n  Archipelago  to  the  east.    Name  and  locate  the  capital. 

Like  Switzerland,  Greece  is  divided  by  mountains  into 
many  small  valleys.  Its  few  rivers  are  rapid  mountain 
streams,  of  little  use  for  inland  trade,  but  its  deeply  in- 
dented coast  affords  good  harbors.  The  land  is  owned 
largely  by  the  peasants  themselves,  but  there  is  little  skill 
employed  in  its  cultivation.  The  products  are  similar  to 
those  of  Italy.  Dried  grapes,  of  a  peculiar  kind  known  as 
currants,  form  the  principal  article  of  export.  The  Greeks 
have  always  been  famous  sailors.  Much  of  the  commerce 
of  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas  is  conducted  by  them, 
and  shipbuilding  is  quite  an  important  industry.  Most  of 
the  fine  sponges  of  commerce  are  gathered  from  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  cured  by  Greeks. 

Greece  was  the  home  of  art  and  literature,  of  commerce  and  good 
government,  long  before  the  rise  of  Rome.  But  the  country  was  de- 
spoiled by  the  Romans  and  then  by  the  Teutons,  and  from  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  it  was 
ruled  by  the  Turks.  Under  the  dominion  of  these  foreign  peoples 
Greece  has  been  sadly  reduced  in  both  wealth  and  culture. 

Athens  is  a  growing  commercial  city  and  contains  relics 
of  former  splendor,  among  them  the  ruins  of  the  Parthe- 
non, a  famous  ancient  temple/       ,        i.        t 

THE  EMPIRE  OF  TURKEY.  By  what  countries  and  waters  is 
European  Turkey  bordered  %  (p.  118.)  This  is  but  part  of  the  Turkish 
Empire,  which  extends  over  southwest  Asia  and  part  of  northern  Africa, 
and  claims  Egypt,  Bulgaria,  Crete,  and  other  states  as  tributary. 
Name  the  capital.  The  entrance  to  what  sea  is  controlled  by  Turkey  ? 
Through  what  straits  and  what  sea  is  this  entrance  ? 

Turkey  receives  its  name  from  the  Turks,  a  people  of 
the  yellow  race,  who,  about  five  hundred  years  ago,  ex- 
tended their  Asiatic  empire  over  a  large  part  of  southeast- 
ern Europe.  Their  European  territory  has  been  gradually 
reduced  until  it  is  not  now  so  large  as  the  state  of 
Missouri. 

It  contains  nearly  twice  as  many  people  as  Missouri,  however,  and  the 
population  is  very  mixed,  consisting  of  Turks,  Greeks,  Slavs,  Gypsies, 


Ruins  in  Athens. 


Constantinople. 

and  many  Asiatics.  The  emperor,  called  the  sultan,  is  an  absolute 
monarch.  The  officers  of  the  government  are  often  dishonest  and  cruel 
in  collecting  the  heavy  taxes. 

In  Turkey  more  land  is  devoted  to  pasture  than  to  farm- 
ing, and  the  agricultural  methods  and  implements  are  very 
rude.  Grain,  tobacco,  cotton,  grapes,  and  tropical  fruits 
are  grown.  Manufactures  are  few.  Carpets,  cloth,  and 
jewelry  are  made  by  hand.  The  trade  is  conducted  mainly 
by  Greeks,  Jews,  and  foreigners.  Raw  materials,  wine,  and 
food  are  exported  in  exchange  for  manufactured  goods. 
There  are  few  railroads  in  the  country,  and  roads  are  bad, 
so  that  domestic  trade  does  not  flourish. 

Where  is  Constantinople  f  The  location  of  this  city  is 
so  commanding  that  it  is  considered  a  key  to  the  military 
control  of  eastern  Europe.  It  is  almost  twice  as  large  as*. 
Boston,  and  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  mosques,  or  Moham- 
medan places  of  prayer,  but  most  of  the  streets  are  un- 
paged and  filthy.  Saloniki  is  an  important  port,  with  a 
large  Jewish  population. 

THE  MINOR  BALKAN  STATES.  Name  the  four  states  between 
Turkey  and  Austria  (p.  118).  All  these  states  formerly  belonged  to 
Turkey,  but  became  independent  in  1878.  Which  of  them  lie  in  the 
Danube  basin  ?  Which  border  on  the  Black  Sea  ?  Which  borders  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea?  Which  has  no  seacoast?  By  what  mountains  is  each 
bordered  or  crossed  ? 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Roumania  and  the  Principality  of  Bul- 
garia agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  and  both  coun- 
tries export  wheat,  corn,  and  wine,  and  raise  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  imports  are  manufactured  goods,  chiefly  from 
Austria.  Roumania  is  so  named  because  it  was  settled  by 
the  ancient  Romans.  Bulgaria  was  settled  by  people  of 
the  Turkish  type  of  the  yellow  race.  Both  countries 
have  been  so  overrun  by  Slavs,  however,  that  there  is  little 
trace  of  the  early  settlers.  What  is  the  capital  of  Rou- 
mania; of  Bulgaria?  Bulgaria  and  Crete,  though  nomi- 
nally tributary  to  Turkey,  are  practically  independent. 

The  Kingdom  ofServia  and  the  Principality  of  Montenegro 
are  less  advanced  in  industry  than  Bulgaria  and  Roumania. 
Both  are  mountainous,  forest-covered  countries.  Hogs 
fatten  in  the  forests,  and  grain  and  wine  are  produced 
What  is  the  capital  of  Servia ;  of  Montenegro  ? 


VT 


EUROPE. 


133 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  RUSSIA.  Is  the  greater  part  of  the  Russian 
Empire  in  Europe  or  in  Asia  ?  (map,  pp.  134, 135.)  About  six  sevenths  of 
the  people,  however,  live  in  European  Russia.  How  does  the  extent  of  the 
whole  empire  in  latitude  and  longitude  compare  with  that  of  the  United 
States  ?  How  does  European  Russia  compare  with  the  United  States  in 
extent ;  in  population  ?  What  two  mountain  systems  are  on  the  bor- 
ders of  European  Russia  t  What  ocean,  seas,  and  rivers  ?  What  coun- 
tries ?  What  group  of  islands  is  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  north  of  the  Ural 
Mountains?  Describe  the  surface  of  European  Russia;  its  drainage. 
What  can  you  tell  of  the  climate  of  Russia  ?  (maps,  p.  114.) 

The  surface  of  European  Russia  is  remarkably  smooth 
and  flat,  like  that  of  our  Prairie  plains.     In  the  north  are 
hills  of  glacial  drift  and  many  lakes,  and 
in  the  extreme  southeast  are  many  small 
salt  lakes.     Explain  how  both  kinds  were 
formed. 

In  the  north  many  people  are  engaged  in 
fishing,  hunting,  and  lumbering,  but  the 
great  industry  of  Russia  is  farming.  Much 
more  grain  and  meat  are  raised  than  are 
consumed  at  home.  More  wheat  is  pro- 
duced than  in  any  other  country  except  the 
United  States,  and  a  large  part  of  it  is  ex- 
ported. Rye  is  extensively  grown,  and  rye 
bread  is  almost  the  only  food  of  the  poorer 
people.   Sugar  beets,  tobacco,  and  flax,  both 


A  drosky,  or  Russian  carriage. 

for  the  fiber  and  for  the  seed,  are  widely  cultivated,  and 
in  the  south  are  many  vineyards. 

Most  of  the  land  in  Russia  belongs  to  the  government  or  to  the  nobles. 
The  peasants,  or  farmers,  are  generally  very  poor,  and  live  in  villages, 
or  mirs.  The  land  around  a  village  is  owned  or  rented  by  the  whole 
mir.  It  is  portioned  out  to  each  family  according  to  the  number  of  its 
members,  a  large  piece  being  reserved  as  a  common  grazing  ground. 

Most  of  the  platinum  in  the  world,  much  gold,  and  some 
coal  and  iron  ore  are  mined  in  the  southern  Ural  Moun- 
tains. Salt  is  obtained  from  the  salt  lakes.  Near  Baku, 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  are  petroleum  wells 
which,  with  those  of  our  country,  produce  most  of  the 
world's  supply  of  kerosene. 

The  Russian  manufactures  made  in  factories  are  mostly 
confined  to  a  few  large  cities,  and  consist  chiefly  of  coarse 
cotton  and  woolen  cloth  and  leather.  A  great  deal  of 
manufacturing  is  carried  on  by  the  peasants  in  their 


homes.  How  are  the  rivers  of  Russia  commercially  useful  f 
Western  Russia  is  moderately  well  supplied  with  railroads 
(p.  121),  and  its  trade  is  increasing.  At  almost  four  hun- 
dred places  in  Russia  there  are  annual  fairs,  where  mer- 
chants exhibit  their  wares,  and  the  people  of  neighboring 
regions  buy  the  next  year's  supply  of  goods. 

While  most  of  the  people  of  Russia  are  Slavs,  the  Lapps  and  Finns 
in  the  northwest,  and  many  tribes  in  the  north  and  in  the  southeast  are 
people  of  the  yellow  race,  distantly  related  to  the  Turks.  There  are 
many  Jews  in  Russia. 

The  Emperor,  or  Czar,  of  Russia  is  an  absolute  monarch,  advised 
by  a  council  which  he  himself  selects,  and  among 
the  people  there  is  much  discontent  with  their  lack 
of  liberty.  The  citizen  in  private  life  is  subject 
to  police  inspection,  and  if  suspected  of  political 
crimes  and  offenses  he  may  be  imprisoned,  or 
exiled  to  Siberia. 

Name  and  locate  the  capital  of  Russia. 
St.  Petersburg  is  situated  in  a  desolate, 
marshy  region,  where  the  ground  is  frozen 
for  five  months  in  winter,  yet  it  is  a  beau- 
tiful city  as  large  as  Philadelphia,  and  the 
fifth  European  city  in  s.ze.  The  czar  has 
here  his  great  palace.  The  city  is  entered 
by  half  a  dozen  railways,  and  a  ship  canal 
connects  it  with  the  sea.  Many  manufac- 
tures are  carried  on. 

Moscow,  another  residence  of  the  czar, 
is  but  little  smaller  than  St.  Petersburg. 
Warsaw  is  a  city  larger  than  Boston,  and 
is  an  important  center  of  manufacture 
and  trade.  Odessa  is  a  flourishing  modern  city  somewhat 
larger  than  Cincinnati,  and  the  chief  wheat-shipping 
port.  Kharhof  and  Kief  are  large  trade  centers  of  the 
agricultural  region,  and  Riga  is  the  great  northern  sea- 
port. Each  of  these  three  cities  is  about  as  large  as 
Minneapolis. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out  about  Peter  the  Great ;  Kosciusko. 
Read  one  of  the  following :  "  The  Land  of  the  Nihilist,"  by  Curtis ; 
"  Jack  Archer,"  by  Henty  ;  "  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,"  by  Jane  Porter ; 
"  The  Story  of  Greece,"  by  J.  A.  Harrison;  "  The  Charge  of  Balaclava," 
and  "  The  Fall  of  Constantinople,"  from  Baldwin's  Readers,  8th  year ; 
and  selections  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places." 


TOPICS  ON  EUROPE. 

I.  Eastern  Europe.  Balkan  states:  governments;  people— history, 
races,  religions,  condition  ;  products.  Russia :  extent ;  government ; 
people ;  climate  ;  soil ;  products. 

II.  Northern  Europe  (North  of  50°  N.  Lat.).  Peninsular:  coun- 
tries ;  governments ;  people  —  races,  density,  history,  occupations ;  prod- 
ucts; climate.  Continental:  countries;  governments;  people — race, 
density ;  occupations ;  products ;  soil.  Insular :  divisions ;  possessions ; 
people  —  descent,  density,  history,  occupations ;  products. 

III.  Southern  Europe.  Peninsular:  countries;  governments; 
people  —  race,  history,  occupations ;  products ;  climate.  Continental : 
countries ;  governments ;  people  —  races,  history,  occupations ;  products 
—  western,  central,  eastern. 

IV.  European  Trade.  Routes:  by  water;  by  land.  Products  ex- 
changed.    Chief  carriers. 

V.  European  Cities.  Capitals  :  each  pupil  may  describe  one.  Sea- 
ports :  each  pupil  may  describe  one.  Manufacturing  centers :  each  pupil 
may  describe  one. 


Russian  peasants. 


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Review  of  Physical  Features  and  Life.  (pp.  113-117.) 
What  physical  features  are  often  considered  boundaries  separating 
Eurasia  into  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Europe  and  Asia  ?  How 
do  these  divisions  compare  in  size?  Name  the  oceans  and  ocean' 
arms  which  border  the  northern,  eastern,  and  southern  coasts  of 
Asia.  Locate  five  peninsulas  of  Asia,  and  name  the  waters  they 
separate.  What  three  island  groups  are  off  the  east  coast  ?  Name 
three  great  rivers  of  the  Arctic  slope ;  four  of  the  Pacific  slope ; 
four  of  the  Indian  Ocean  slope.  Is  the  interior  region  between  the 
basins  of  these  rivers  entirely  highland  ?  Explain  the  relation  be- 
tween the  rainfall  and  the  drainage  of  this  interior  region.  Describe 
briefly  the  great  highland  of  Asia,  its  extent,  altitude,  mountain 
ranges,  climate,  and  surface  peculiarities.  Describe  briefly  the 
great  northern  lowland ;  the  Pacific  slope ;  the  Indian  Ocean  slope. 

Locate  and  describe  briefly  the  characteristic  forms  of  vege- 
tation in  the  northern  lowland  of  Asia ;  the  characteristic  forms 
of  animal  life.  In  the  same  manner  describe  the  distribution  of 
life  forms  in  the  highland  region ;  on  the  southern  and  southeast- 
ern slopes  of  Asia.  Locate  the  two  races  of  men  which  inhabit 
Asia.  Locate  four  peoples  of  the  white  race ;  three  peoples  of  the 
yellow  race.  How  does  Asia  compare  with  Europe  in  population  ; 
with  North  America  1  Locate  the  two  great  regions  of  very  dense 
popidation  in  Asia.  More  than  three  fourths  of  all  the  people  in 
Asia  live  in  these  two  regions,  and  about  half  the  remainder  live 
on  the  islands  to  the  east  and  southeast.  In  what  stage  of  culture 
are  most  of  the  people  in  Asia  ? 

PEOPLE. 

Civilization.  More  than  half  of  all  the  people  in 
the  world  have  their  homes  in  Asia.  Nearly  all  of 
these  people  have  gradually  become  somewhat  civil- 
ized, though  their  civilization  is  as  rude  and  imper- 
fect as  that  of  Europe  was  a  thousand  years  ago'. 
But  it  is  different  in  many  ways  from  the  earlier 
civilization  of  Europe,  for  the  peoples  of  Asia  and  of 
Europe  mixed  with  one  another  very  little  in  olden 
times.  Therefore  the  languages,  habits,  dress,  and 
manners  of  the  peoples  of  Asia  seem  very  strange  to 
us,  who  have  received  our  civilization  from  Europe. 

Throughout  most  of  Asia  the  women  are  considered  as  little 
more  than  servants  or  slaves.  They  are  seldom  educated  and 
are  often  bought  and  sold.  Boys  and  men  are  also  enslaved  in 
many  of  the  countries,  and  are  often  very  cruelly  treated.  None 
of  the  native  peoples  of  the  mainland  of  Asia  have  yet  learned  to 
recognize  the  value  of  the  steam  engine,  or  of  improved  machinery 
and  implements  of  any  kind,  and  nearly  everything  is  done  by 
human  labor  or  by  that  of  domestic  animals.  There  is  little  profit 
in  such  slow  labor,  and  hence  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are 
wretchedly  poor.  In  the  sparsely  settled  regions  the  people  use 
animal  food  chiefly.  Why  1  In  the  moister  regions  of  the  south- 
east food  is  mainly  vegetable  and  is  much  more  plentiful,  and  that 
is  why  these  regions  are  more  densely  peopled.  But  even  there, 
when  the  crops  fail  in  any  large  district,  a  terrible  famine  occurs 
and  thousands  of  people  starve,  because  there  are  few  or  no  rail- 
roads, steamboats,  or  good  roads  by  which  food  may  be  quickly 
brought  from  other  districts.  The  few  railroads  and  the  little 
improved  machinery  are  in  the  hands  of  the  comparatively  few 
Europeans  who  have  settled  in  Asia. 

Commerce.  Because  of  the  lack  of  improved  im- 
plements and  means  of  transportation,  the  products 
and  commerce  of  Asia  are  slight  in  comparison  with 
its  large  population.  Although  there  are  more  than 
twice  as  many  people  in  Asia  as  in  Europe,  the  foreign 


136 


PARTS   OF  THE   EARTH. 


commerce  is  but  one  fourth  as 
great  as  that  of  Europe,  and  is 
less  than  twice  as  great  as  that  of 
the  United  States. 

Fully  nine  tenths  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  Asia  is  carried  on  by  the  coun- 
tries and  islands  in  the  southeast  which 
have  a  heavy  or  moderately  heavy 
rainfall. 

Governments.  None  of  the 
native  peoples  on  the  mainland 
of   Asia  have   become   civilized 


'■;<: 


■ §  ■  i. 


A  house  in  Russian  Turkestan. 

enough  to  know  how  to  organize  governments  for  the 
benefit  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  Most  of  the  countries, 
therefore,  are  absolute  monarchies,  much  as  the  countries 
of  Europe  were  a  thousand  years  ago.  The  ruler  holds 
his  position  by  force,  and  has  supreme  power  over  the 
lives  and  property  of  his  subjects,  whom  he  often  treats 
cruelly  and  unjustly. 

What  great  country  in  southern  Asia  belongs  to  Great  Britain  t 
Anam,  on  the  southeast  coast,  belongs  to  the  Republic  of  France.  These 
nations  send  Europeans  to  govern  these  countries  as  colonial  possessions. 
All  the  other  countries  of  the  Asiatic  mainland  are  governed  by  absolute 
monarchs.  What  island  empire  is  east  of  Asia  ?  The  Japanese  are  the 
most  civilized  native  people  of  Asia.  They  have  recently  adopted  many 
of  the  customs  of  European  civilization ;  among  others,  a  limited  mon- 
archy as  their  form  of  government.  The  United  States,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Great  Britain  control  the  islands  between  the  Empire  of  Japan  and 
Australia. 

Religion.  Southwest  of  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  and  the 
Indus  Eiver,  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevailing  religious 
faith  in  Asia,  although  there  are  many  Christians  and 
Jews  in  Asia  Minor.  In  India  the  mass  of  the  people 
believe  in  Brahmanism,  but  there  are  also  very  many 
Mohammedans,  and  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevailing 
religion  in  the  East  Indies.  In  Indo-China,  China, 
Korea,  and  Japan  most  of  the  people  are  Buddhists, 
while  in  Siberia  the  Greek  form  of  the  Christian  religion 
prevails. 


COUNTRIES. 

ASIATIC    RUSSIA.      By 

what  name  is  the  greater  part 
of  Asiatic  Russia  called  ?  De- 
scribe the  boundaries  of  Asiatic 
Russia.  Find  the  distance  in 
miles  from  the  Ural  Mountains 
to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  De- 
scribe the  surface  of  Siberia. 
Name  its  great  rivers.  Why 
are  there  no  seaports  on  the 
northern  coast?  What  kind 
of  climate  has  Siberia  ?   Why  ? 

The  summers  of  Si- 
beria, though  short,  are 
so  warm  that  grain  ripens 
almost  as  far  north  as 
the  Arctic  Circle;  but 
in  winter  the  cold  is  in- 
tense even  in  the  south- 
ern parts.  In  southern  Siberia  are  broad  tracts  of  fertile 
land  and  grassy  plains,  which  furnish  pasturage  for  thou- 
sands of  cattle  and  horses.  Gold  is  found  along  the  edge 
of  the  highland,  and  there  are  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and 
other  minerals. 

Branches  of  the  Siberian  rivers  flow  so  near  to  one  an- 
other that  they  form,  with  but  short  interruptions,  a  natu- 
ral water  way  far  through  the  interior.  It  is  mainly  by  this 
route  that  the  more  distant  provinces  are  reached,  though 
a  post  road  traverses  this  region  from  Tinmen,  through 
Irkutsk,  to  the  Amur  River.  Find  these  towns.  They  are 
the  principal  trade  centers  of  Siberia. 

The  Russian  government  has  built  a  railroad  across  the  country 
from  east  to  west.  Its  eastern  terminus  is  Vladivostok.  What  is  the 
distance  from  Vladivostok  to  St.  Petersburg  ?  What  advantages  does 
the  construction  of  this  road  give  to  Russia  ? 

Siberia  is  very  sparsely  settled.  It  is  larger  than  the  whole  United 
States,  but  contains  fewer  people  than  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  free  immigrants  from  European  Russia.  Many, 
however,  are  exiles  who,  having  been  convicted  of  crimes  or  suspected 
of  unfriendly  sentiments  toward  the  government,  are  obliged  to  live 
there  under  Russian  officers  appointed  to  watch  them.     There  are  also 


Oil  works  at  Baku. 


ASIA. 


137 


several  small  tribes  of  semibarbarous  natives  who  have  no  fixed  place  of 
abode. 

"What  is  that  part  of  Asiatic  Russia  called  which  lies  south  of  the  west- 
ern part  of  Siberia  ?  What  people  live  in  this  region  ?  (map,  p.  117.) 
What  lakes  are  in  this  region  ?    What  kind  of  lakes  are  they  ? 

The  greater  part  of  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  is  dry  and  bar- 
ren. The  few  people  who  live  there  raise  cattle  or  culti- 
vate the  oases  that  occur  here  and  there 
in  the  great  plain.  Farther  south,  in 
Turkestan,  the  land  is  better  watered  and 
better  tilled.  Here  not  only  are  cattle 
raised,  but  grain,  cotton,  and  fruit  are 
cultivated.  The  production  of  raw  silk 
is  also  an  important  industry.  Tash- 
kend,  about  the  size  of  Eochester,  N.  Y., 
is  an  important  center  of  trade  and  do- 
mestic manufactures. 

Where  is  Transcaucasia  ?    By  what  is  it  sepa- 
rated from  European  Russia  ?    Between  what  seas 
does  it  lie  ?     It  is  about  twice  as  large  as  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  con- 
tains about  as  many  people 
as  the  whole  of  Siberia. 

Many  Aryans  from 
European  Russia  have 
recently  migrated  into 
both  Russian  Turkes- 
tan and  Transcaucasia. 
Wheat,  corn,  and  bar- 
ley are  raised  in  Trans- 
caucasia. Much  petro- 
leum, refined  near  the 
Baku  wells,  is  shipped 
into  Russia  by  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  the  Volga 
River,  and  much  is 
sent  by  rail  to  Batum, 
whence  it  is  shipped  to 
other  countries.  Tiflis 
is  the  largest  city  of 
Asiatic  Russia. 

Bokhara  and  Khiva  are  small  states  under  native  rulers  who  are  vassals 
of  Russia.     The  people  and  products  resemble  those  of  Turkestan. 

ASIATIC  TURKEY.  What  waters  form  part  of  the  boundaries  of 
Asiatic  Turkey?  What  countries  border  on  it?  By  what  is  it  sep- 
arated from  European  Turkey?  Where  are  its  mountains?  Name 
its  rivers  and  describe  its  drainage. 

The  valleys  of  Asiatic  Turkey  once  yielded  large  quanti- 
ties of  grain  and  other  products,  and  contained  a  large  and 
powerful  population,  but  under  the  rule  of  the  Turks,  the 
whole  country  is  in  a  state  of  decay. 

About  half  of  the  people  are  Turks,  and  there  are  a 
great  many  Arabs,  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Jews.  The 
raising  of  sheep  and  goats  is  the  leading  occupation. 
The  wool  is  woven  by  hand  into  carpets  and  rugs,  and  the 
goats'  hair  into  shawls.  In  the  fertile  parts  of  the  country 
figs  and  dates  are  grown,  and  some  cotton,  tobacco,  opium, 
and  raw  silk  are  produced. 


Syrian  women. 


Find  Smyrna,  Damascus,  and  Bagdad.  They  are  the 
chief  commercial  cities.  Each  of  them  is  about  as  large 
as  Louisville,  and  all  were  famous  in  olden  times.  About 
1000  years  ago  Bagdad  was  one  of  the  greatest  cities  in 
the  world.  Now  it  serves  as  one  of  the  ports  for  the  Per- 
sian trade.  Trebizond  is  also  a  port  for  this  trade.  Where 
is  it  ?  Beirut  is  the  port  for  Damascus,  and  exports  much 
silk.  Jerusalem  was  the  holy  city 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  scene  of  many 
events  described  in  the  Bible.  Mecca 
is  noted  as  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed. 

ARABIA.  What  waters  partly  surround 
the  Arabian  peninsula?  To  what  country 
does  most  of  the  coast  land  belong?  The 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula  is  a  desert 
plateau  more  than  half  a  mile  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Why  are  there  no  rivers  in  Ara- 
bia ?  There  are  several  large  oases,  however, 
which  are  watered  by  short  streams  and  are 
green  with  vegetation. 

The  people  of  Arabia  are  in  much 

the    same    condition    as    they    were 

four  thousand  years  ago.     There  is 

no    central    government,    but    each 

tribe  is  ruled  by  its  own  chief,  or 

sheik.  The  Bedouins,  or  desert  Arabs, 

live  in  tents  and  move  with  their  camels  and  herds  of 

horses  from  place  to  place  as  the  seasons  change.  Other 

Arabs  live  in  villages,  cultivate  the  soil,  and  carry  on  a 

limited  commerce.     The  land,   wherever  it  is  irrigated, 

yields  abundantly,  and  dates,  indigo,  coffee,  and  barley 

are  produced.    These,  with  myrrh,  gum  arabic,  and  pearls, 

are  the  chief  exports. 
Most  of  the  trade  is 
carried  on  by  cara- 
vans. 

The  chief  sea- 
port is  Aden,  which 
belongs  to  Great 
Britain.  It  is  an  im- 
portant coaling  sta- 
tion for  steamers. 

Find  Oman.  It  is  an 
Arabic  state  under  the 
rule  of  an  hereditary  sul- 
tan, but  is  dependent  on 
Great  Britain.  Maskat, 
the  capital,  is  a  seaport  of 
some  importance,  from 
which  dates  and  other 
fruits  and  pearls  are  ex- 
ported. In  the  Persian 
Gulf  are  the  richest  pearl 
Arab  barber.  fisheries  in  the  world. 

PERSIA.     What  waters  partly  surround  Persia?     What  countries 
border  on  it  ?   Describe  its  surface  and  drainage ;  its  climate. 

Persia  is  about  four  times  as  large  as  the  state  of  Cali- 
fornia.   A  great  part  of  its  surface  is  a  desert,  though 


138 


PARTS  OF  THE   EARTH. 


near  the  seacoasts  and  mountains  some 
rain  falls.  Along  the  southern  shores 
the  date  palm  flourishes,  and  there  are 
fine  forests  of  cedars,  elms,  and  oaks. 
All  kinds  of  fruit  grow  in  the  lowlands. 
Wheat,  barley,  rice,  cotton,  and  opium 
are  cultivated.  The  raising  of  cattle, 
sheep,  camels,  and  horses  is  the  chief 
business  of  many  of  the  people. 

Besides  the  Persians,  who  compose  the  greater 
part  of  the  population,  there  are  many  Arabs,  Ar- 
menians, and  Turks  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try.   The  ruler  of  Persia  is  called  the  shah. 

Handmade  carpets  and  camel's-hair 
cloth  are  almost  the  only  manufactures. 
Trade  is  carried  on  by  caravans.  There 
are  practically  no  railroads  or  carriage 

roads.     The  principal  exports  are  opium,  Persian  grocery 

pearls,  carpets,  and  dates. 

What  is  the  capital  of  Persia?  Teheran  and  Tabriz 
are  the  chief  centers  of  the  caravan  trade.  Ispahan, 
the  former  capital,  has  great  bazars  and  magnificent 
palaces.  Bushire  and  Bar/rush  are  the  most  important 
ports. 

AFGHANISTAN.  What  countries  surround  Afghanistan  ?  Describe 
its  surface  and  its  drainage. 

Although  the  climate  of  Afghanistan  is  dry,  the  soil  is 
fertile  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  yields  two  har- 
vests each  year.  Wheat  and  barley  are  harvested  in  sum- 
mer, and  rice,  millet,  and  corn  in  autumn.  Fruits  are 
abundant,  and  drugs  are  produced. 

The  population  of  Afghanistan  is  made  up  of  many 
tribes,  mostly  of  Aryan  descent,  all  loosely  united  under 
one  ruler  called  the  ameer. 

Next  to  agriculture  and  stock  raising  the  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  making  of  silk  goods,  felts,  and  carpets. 
Other  exports  are  horses,  spices,  and  fruits. 

Name  the  capital.  Herat,  Kandahar,  and  Kabul  are  for- 
tified towns  and  centers  of  considerable  caravan  trade. 

BALUCHISTAN.         By 

what  countries  and  sea  is 
Baluchistan  bordered?  De- 
scribe its  surface  and  cli- 
mate. 

Baluchistan  is  about 
half  as  large  as  the  state 
of  Texas.  It  is  governed 
by  a  native  ruler,  or 
khan,  who  is  under  the 
control  of  the  British 
government  in  India. 
The  people  are  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  Afghan- 
istan. Much  of  the 
country  is  stony  and 
barren,  but  there  are 
good  pastures,  and  the 
nomad   tribes   are   en-  Persian  woman. 


gaged  in  raising  camels  and  horses,  sheep 
and  goats.    Name  the  capital. 

INDIA.  Bound  India.  Describe  the  surface 
and  drainage  of  Hindustan  ;  of  the  Dekkan.  De- 
scribe the  climate.  What  two  rivers  are  fed  by  the 
snows  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas? 
What  branch  of  the  Indus  pierces  these  moun- 
tains? Which  slope  of  the  Himalayas  does  the 
Ganges  drain  ? 

India  is  about  half  as  large  as  the 
United  States,  but  its  population  is  about 
four  times  as  great.  There  are  peo- 
ple of  various  types  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  yet  they  are  but  little  mixed. 
By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  popula- 
tion consists  of  Hindus,  a  dark-skinned 
branch  of  the  Aryan  people. 

Within  the  past  three  centuries  the 
English,  French,  and  Portuguese  estab- 
lished trading  stations  on  the  coasts.    The  British  finally 
gained  control  over  nearly  all  the  native  states,  and  now 


Weaving  tapestry,  Persia. 

govern  almost  the  entire  country,  although  the  number  of 
British  people  in  India  is  quite  insignificant  in  comparison 
with  the  dense  native  population.  The  King  of  Great 
Britain  is  called  the  Emperor  of  India.  He  appoints  a 
British  governor  general,  or  viceroy,  who  lives  in  India  and 
governs  the  country  under  the  direction  of  the  executive 
branch  of  the  British  government  in  London. 

The  Hindus  had  attained  a  somewhat  high  degree  of  civilization  long 
before  the  Europeans  entered  their  country.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
temples  in  the  world  are  the  work  of  the  Hindus  centuries  ago.  They 
had  a  written  language,  an  ancient  literature,  and  a  highly  organized 
system  of  society.  The  peculiarity  of  the  Hindu  social  system  is  its 
division  into  castes,  or  fixed  classes.  A  Hindu  must  live,  marry,  and  die 
in  the  same  class  of  society  and  follow  the  same  occupation  as  his 
father.  This  system  very  naturally  discourages  all  kinds  of  progress, 
and  the  Hindus  have  made  no  improvement  among  themselves  for  a 
long  time.  The  houses  of  the  common  people  are  small  and  miserable 
hovels,  without  floors  and  with  little  or  no  furniture.  The  farming  im- 
plements and  methods  are  of  the  rudest  description,  and  the  flour  or  meal 
is  generally  ground  by  hand  as  shown  in  the  picture  on  the  opposite  page. 


ASIA. 


139 


The  population  of  India  is  most  dense  in  the  Ganges  valley  and  in 
those  parts  of  southeastern  Dekkan  where  irrigation  is  successful.  It  is 
least  dense  in  the  dry  and  barren  parts  of  the  Indus  valley. 

Most  of  the  people  live  by  agriculture,  raising  millet  and 
rice  for  their  own  use,  and  various  other  products  for  ex- 
port.    Rice,  jute,  and 


bamboo  grow  in  the 
delta  of  the  Ganges. 
Farther  up  the  river 
the  mulberry  and  the 
opium  poppy  are  cul- 
tivated. Cotton,  wheat 
and  pepper  are  grown 
in  the  Dekkan,  where 
there  are  also  large 
plantations  of  coffee. 
Tea,  and  the  cinchona 


Grinding  millet,  India. 


The  British  have  caused  good  roads  to  be  constructed 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  have  built  more 
than  20,000  miles  of  railroad.  These  are  the  chief 
means  of  transportation,  for  the  detritus  in  the  rivers 
of  northern  India,  and  cascades  in  the  rivers  of  the 
Dekkan,  interfere  with  the  use  of  these  streams 
as  trade  routes. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  India  is  nearly  as  great 
as  that  of  the  United  States,  and  almost  equals  that 
of  all  the  rest  of  Asia.  About  half  of  it  is  with  Great 
Britain,  and  a  large  part  of  the  remainder  with  China. 


tree  from  South  America,  are  cultivated 
on  the  Himalaya  foothills.  In  the  valley 
of  the  Brahmaputra  the  growing  of  seeds 
for  making  oil  similar  to  linseed  oil  is 
one  of  the  most  important  industries. 

Many  miles  of  irrigating  canals  have  been  dug 
in  the  Ganges  valley,  and  reservoirs  have  been  built 
in  the  Dekkan  to  supply  water  in  times  of  drought. 
Yet  the  rainfall  is  so  irregular  in  many  districts  that 
terrible  famines  frequently  occur  on  account  of  the 
failure  of  crops. 

Elephants  and  camels,  as  well  as  buffaloes  and 
zebus,  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden. 

Manufacturing  industries  are  being  rapidly  developed 
by  the  Europeans,  and  cotton,  woolen,  and  jute  goods, 
and  paper  are  made.  There  are  some  iron  mines  in  India, 
and  many  coal  mines,,  but  they  are  not  close  together,  and 
there  are  consequently  but  few  manufactures  of  iron. 
Most  of  the  manufactured  goods  are  still  made  by  hand: 
fine  cottons  and  silks,  gold  embroideries,  soft  cashmere 
shawls,  carved  ivory,  jewelry,  beautiful  rugs,  and  embroid- 
ered leather  goods  in  great  variety  are  produced  in  this 
way  by  the  native  workmen. 


Stairway  for  bathers,  Benares. 


The  principal 
exports  are  cot- 
ton, jute,  rice, 
oilseeds,  opium, 
tea,hides,indigo, 
and  wheat.  Cot- 
ton cloth,  ma- 
chinery, iron- 
ware, and  re- 
fined sugar  are 
the  chief  im- 
ports. 

Calcutta  is  the 
capital  and  chief 
seaport.  Bombay 
is  the  largest  city 
on  the  western 


coast,  and  is  important  as  the  chief  port  for  the  shipment 
of  Indian  cotton.  Each  of  these  cities  is  about  the  size  of 
Brooklyn.  Madras  and  Haidarabad,  each  about  the  size 
of  Baltimore,  are  great  centers  of  trade.  Lucknow,  Benares, 
and  Delhi  are  large  and  important  native  cities. 


Nepal  and  Bhutan  are  native  monarchies  in  northern  India, 
is  partly  in  British  control.     Nepal  is  tributary  to  China. 


Bhutan 


Ceylon  is  a  British  colony  by  itself.    Its  chief  products 
are  tea  and  cocoanuts.    Name  the  chief  city. 


140 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  INDO-CHINA.  What  divisions  of  British 
India  lie  east  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  1  What  narrow  peninsula  extends 
still  farther  south  ?  What  British  possession  occupies  the  southern  part 
of  the  Malay  peninsula?  What  country  comprises  the  eastern  part  of 
Indo-China  ¥    What  is  the  country  in  the  central  part  called  ¥ 

Name  the  chief  rivers  and  gulfs  of  Indo-China.  In  what  direction  do 
the  mountain  ranges  extend  ¥ 

Most  of  the  people  of  Indo-China  are  of  the  Mongolian 
type,  but  there  are  many  Malays  in  the  south.  In  the 
mountainous   regions    there 


Into  what  does  each  flow  ¥    Besides  China  proper,  what  four  other  coun- 
tries are  included  in  the  Chinese  Empire  ¥ 

China  proper,  or  the  Middle  Kingdom,  as  the  Chinese 
call  it,  contains  about  nine  tenths  of  the  population  of  the 
empire.  Why  is  it  better  fitted  for  habitation  than  other 
parts  of  the  empire  ?  The  Yangtze  is  navigable  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  by  the  largest  ocean  steamers.  This  river, 
with  its  tributaries,  and  the  Si  River  to  the  south  afford 

the  only  easy  means  of  corn- 


are  but  few  inhabitants,  but 
in  the  valleys  and  river  deltas 
the  population  is  very  dense. 
The  chief  products  of  Indo- 
China  are  rice,  sugar,  spices, 
lumber,  and  tin.  There  are 
mines  of  coal,  iron,  copper, 
silver,  and  gold,  but  the  re- 
sources of  none  of  the  coun- 
tries have  yet  been  fully  de- 
veloped.    The  foreign  corn- 


Houses  on  the  Mekong. 


merce  of  Indo-China  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
part  of  Asia  except  India.  It  is  conducted  almost 
entirely  by  Europeans,  although  many  of  the  mer- 
chants are  Chinese. 

Upper  and  Lower  Burma  are  part  of  the  British  government  of  India, 
but  the  Straits  Settlements  form  a  separate  British  colony.  Anam,  with 
Tonkin,  Cambodia,  and  Cochin  China,  is  under  the  control  of  the  French, 
though  Anam  and  Cambodia  have  native  rulers.  Siam  is  a  native  king- 
dom, about  four  times  as  large  as  the  state  of  New  York. 

Name  and  locate  the  capital  of  Siam.  Bangkok  is  built 
partly  on  piles  in  the  river  and  is  about  the  size  of  Louisville. 
Mandalay  and  Rangoon  are  the  principal  cities  and  trade 
centers  of  Burma.  Saigon  is  the  seat  of  government  for 
French  Indo-China.  Singapore,  in  the  Straits  Settlements, 
exports  spices  and  the  larger  part  of  the  world's  supply  of 
tin,  and  is  important  as  a  coaling  station  for  steamers  and 
as  a^center  of  trade  for  the  surrounding  region. 

THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE.  In  what  part  of  Asia  is  the  Chinese 
Empire  ¥  What  waters  border  it  ¥  What  mountains  are  on  its  south- 
western border ;  on  its  northwestern  border  ¥  What  plateau  forms  the 
western  part ;  the  northern  part  ¥  Compare  it  with  the  United  States 
and  with  Europe  in  area  and  population.    What  are  its  two  great  rivers  ¥ 


A  Burmese  family. 


munication  in  the  interior. 
TheHoang  is  loaded  with  sed- 
iment and  is  so  obstructed  by 
sand  bars  that  it  is  not  nav- 
igable. It  often  overflows  its 
banks,  causing  widespread 
disaster  to  villages  and  farms, 
and  several  times  it  has 
changed  its  course  entirely. 

Where  is  the  Grand  Canal,  and 
what  two  rivers  does  it  connect  ¥   It 
was  built  more  than  a  thousand  years 
ago  and  is  still  much  used  as  a  high- 
way of  trade  and  communication. 
There  are  several  other  canals  in 
different  parts  of  the  country, 
but  owing  to  the  prejudices 
of    the    Chinese    there    are 
few    railroads.     The    public 
roads  are  in  a  poor  condition; 
and,  away  from  rivers  and  ca- 
nals, goods  are  carried  for  the 
most  part  on  the  backs  of  por- 
ters. 

The  people  of  Chinabelong 
to  the  Mongolian  type  of  the 
yellow  race,  and  are  peculiar 
in  language,  religion,  cus- 
toms, and  dress.  Buddhism 
is  a  prevailing  religion,  but 
there  are  many  followers  of 
Confucius,  a  Chinese  philoso- 
pher who  lived  many  centu- 
ries ago.  The  strangest  fea- 
ture of  their  religion  is  the 
worship  of  their  ancestors. 
This  makes  them  unwilling  to 


f 


leave  the  ways  which  these  ancestors  followed;  hence  they  are  suspi- 
cious of  foreigners  and  dislike  foreign  customs.  Their  dress  and  man- 
ners, and  even  the  construction  of  their  houses,  are  regulated  by  laws 
made  hundreds  of  years  ago.  It  was  not  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  they  consented  to  have  any  intercourse  with 
other  nations.  Yet  they  were  among  the  first  people  in  the  world  to 
become  civilized.  Silk  spinning  and  weaving  were  brought  to  great 
perfection  by  them  many  centuries  before  such  arts  were  known  in 
Europe.  The  Chinese  were  among  the  first  people  to  make  paper;  they 
invented  printing  and  discovered  gunpowder  long  before  such  things 
were  known  to  Europeans.  Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  from 
China. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  in  which  the  emperor  ap- 
points his  own  successor.  The  officers  of  the  government  are  selected  by 
the  emperor  from  those  scholars  best  informed  in  Chinese  learning. 
Every  candidate  for  office  must  pass  severe  examinations. 

Education  is  general  among  the  men,  but  neglected  among  the  women. 
The  language  has  no  alphabet ;  each  written  character  stands  for  a  syl- 
lable or  word,  and  a  Chinese  boy  must  learn  to  know  several  thousands 
of  these  characters  by  sight. 


ASIA. 


141 


Making  pottery,  China. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  and  most  honorable  occupation. 
Wheat  and  other  cereals  are  grown  in  the  north,  while  in 
the  south  rice  is  the  principal  crop.  China  exceeds  all 
other  countries  in  the  production  of  tea  and  of  raw  silk. 

Coal  is  found  in  many  parts  of  China,  but  is  not  exten- 
sively mined,  though  it  was  used  as  fuel  by  the  Chinese  long 
before  its  value  was  known  in  Europe.  There  are  also 
rich  deposits  of  iron  and  copper,  which  with  modern 
methods  of  mining  may  be  made  very  productive. 

Trade  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Japan,  Russia,  and 
the  United  States;  and  tea  and  silk  are  the  most  im- 
portant exports.  Beautiful  hand- woven  silk,  lacquered 
ware,  and  ivory  carvings  are  also  exported.  Opium, 
cotton  cloth,  and  other  manufactures  are  the  principal 
imports. 

China  is  remarkable  for  its  many  large  cities,  but  their 
streets  are  narrow,  unpaved,  and  filthy.  The  houses  are 
low  and  generally  frail,  being  built  mostly  of  bamboo  or 
of  sun-dried  brick,  with  earthen  floors  and  paper  win- 
dows, and  without  fireplaces  or  stoves.  Peking,  the  capital, 
is  the  center  of  a  large  caravan  trade,  chiefly  with  Siberia, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  as  many  people  as  Philadelphia. 
Tientsin,  its  seaport,  has  about  a  million  inhabitants.  Can- 
ton and  Shanghai  are  the  chief  ports  of  American  trade. 
Hankau  and  Hangchau  are  both  large  cities. 

Hongkong  is  an  island  which  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
in  1842.    It  is  the  center  of  a  large  foreign  trade. 

Tibet.  Describe  its  boundaries,  surface,  drainage,  and  climate.  The 
people  of  Tibet,  although,  belonging  to  the  yellow  race,  resemble  the 
Hindus  in  many  of  their  habits.  By  means  of  caravans  they  carry  .on  a 
considerable  trade  with  lowland  China  and  some  little  with  India  through 
passes  in  the  Himalayas.  The  chief  products  are  silver,  gold,  salt,  wool, 
and  borax.  There  are  few  manufactures,  but  woolen  cloth  is  woven  by 
the  women  and  exported.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  Europeans  to  enter 
any  part  of  the  country.  Lassa,  the  capital,  is  so  jealously  guarded  that 
very  few  white  men  have  ever  been  admitted  within  its  walls. 

Chinese  Turkestan.  Describe  its  physical  features.  It  is  inhabited  by 
wandering  barbarous  tribes,  who  are  engaged  in  herding  and  sheep 
raising,  and  are  mainly  Mohammedans. 

Mongolia.    Describe  its  physical  features.    It  has  an  area  greater  than 


that  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  but  only  about  as  many 
inhabitants  as  Indiana.  It  is  the  original  home  of  the  Mongols,  whose 
empire  once  extended  from  the  Yellow  Sea  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  chief 
wealth  of  the  people  is  their  herds  of  camels,  horses,  and  sheep. 

Manchuria.  Describe  its  physical  features.  It  is  about  as  large  as 
Texas  and  New  Mexico  taken  together.  The  Manchus  are  brave  and 
warlike,  and  about  250  years  ago  conquered  China.  The  rulers  of  China 
have  ever  since  been  Manchus.  Opium  and  indigo  are  the  chief  products, 
but  cotton,  tobacco,  and  wheat  are  raised  in  abundance.  The  country  is 
rich  in  coal,  gold,  and  iron  ;  but  the  mines  are  not  much  worked.  Mukden 
is  the  capital.    Manchuria  is  now  largely  under  the  control  of  Russia. 

Kwangtung,  including  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan,  has  been  given  by 
lease  to  Russia ;  Kiauchau,  to  Germany ;  Weihaiwei,  to  Great  Britain ; 
and  Kwangchau,  to  Prance.    Macao  belongs  to  Portugal. 

KOREA.  What  waters  nearly  surround  Korea  1  What  is  the  capi- 
tal ;  its  seaport  ? 

The  people  of  Korea  resemble  the  Chinese  in  appearance, 
in  religion,  and  in  many  of  their  customs.     Until  very  re- 


Packing  tea,  China. 

cently  they  have  refused  to  have  intercourse  with  for- 
eigners, and  hence  but  little  is  known  of  the  interior  of 
their  country.  The  government  is  an  almost  absolute 
monarchy,  but,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Japanese,  the 
power  of  the  king  has  been  somewhat  limited.  The  chief 
industry  is  agriculture,  and  yet  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
land  is  cultivated.  The  principal  products  are  rice,  beans, 
and  wheat.  Gold,  iron,  copper,  and  coal  are  found,  but 
not  extensively  mined.  Trade  with  the  interior  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  pack  horses  and  porters. 

JAPAN.  Of  what  is  the  Empire  of  Japan  composed  ?  Compare  the 
extent  of  the  Japanese  Islands  in  latitude  with  that  of  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States.  Compare  their  area  with  that  of  California.  What 
seas  separate  these  islands  from  the  mainland  ?  Name  the  largest  is- 
land; four  other  large  islands. 

The  Japanese  islands  contain  over  fifty  volcanoes, 
among  them  the  famous  Fujiyama.  Earthquakes  are 
very  frequent.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  the 
rivers  are  generally  mountain  torrents. 

Much  of  the  land  is  unfit  for  farming,  yet  agriculture 
is  the  chief  occupation.  The  farming  implements  are  very 
simple,  but  irrigating  and  fertilizing  are  well  understood. 
Rice,  which  forms  the  chief  food,  and  other  grains  and 
many  vegetables  are  grown.  There  are  many  mulberry 
trees,  for  Japan,  after  China,  is  the  world's  greatest  silk- 
producing  country.     Much  tea  is  raised,  and  the  forests 


14! 


2 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


yield  lumber,  lacquer  gum,  and  camphor.  The  bamboo  is 
abundant,  and  is  used  for  many  purposes. 

There  are  few  sheep  or  cattle;  hence  little  wool  or 
leather  is  obtained,  and  dairy  products  are  rare.  But 
many  hogs  and  fowls  are  raised,  and  the  Japanese  fisheries 
are  valuable. 

The  chief  mineral  products  are  silver,  copper,  coal,  iron, 
and  sulphur. 

Several  branches  of  manufacture,  as  we  understand  the  term,  have 
lately  been  started  in  Japan,  and  are  flourishing,  but  for  many  centuries 
the  Japanese  have  been  producing  wonderfully  skillful  and  artistic  handi- 
work. Japanese  silk,  cloth,  and  embroidery,  jute  floor  mats,  paper,  and 
bamboo  work,  matches,  inlaid  metal  work,  lacquered  ware,  and  pottery 
now  found  in  all  European  and  American  cities. 

ilroads  are  being  built,  and  steam  vessels  are  being 
or  coasting  trade,  so  that  commerce  is  very  active. 


The  foreign  commerce  is  as  great 
as  that  of  all  northern  and  western 
Asia.  The  chief  exports  are  raw 
and  manufactured  silk,  but  tea, 
rice,  coal,  and  copper  are  also  im- 
portant exports. 

The  Japanese  are  by  far  the  most  civ- 
ilized of  the  Asiatic  peoples.  They  are 
of  mixed  Mongol  and  Malay  blood,  rather 
small  of  stature,  but  with  lively,  pleasing 
features.  For  many  centuries  they  lived  secluded  from  other  nations, 
cultivating  their  peculiar  arts,  and  having  a  literature  of  their  own. 
About  fifty  years  ago,  realizing  that  they  were  less  strong  than  the  na- 
tions of  Europe,  they  invited  American  and  European  specialists  and 
teachers  into  their  country,  sent  their  brightest  youths  to  study  in  our 
cities,  and  established  schools,  railroads,  postal  and  telegraph  systems, 
factories,  and  an  army  and  navy,  after  European  or  American  models. 
Their'  emperor  rules  by  the  aid  of  a  parliament  consisting  of  two  houses, 
the  members  of  one  being  nobles  and  the  members  of  the  other  being 
representatives  elected  by  the  people. 

Education  is  almost  universal,  and  newspapers  are  read  by  the  people 
of  the  cities ;  but  most  of  the  people  are  still  Buddhists  or  worship  their 
ancestors,  dress  in  loose  robes,  with  girdles  and  straw  sandals,  and  follow 
the  ancient  customs  of  the  country.  Their  manners  are  courteous,  their 
wits  quick  and  keen,  and  their  ambition  great. 

Tokyo,  the  capital,  is  a  city  of  rapid  growth  and  contains 
over  a  million  people.  The  foreign  quarter  is  much  like 
a  European  city.     Yokohama,  its  seaport,  is  the  chief  cen-, 


Threshing  rice,  Japan 


ter  of  foreign  commerce.     Osaka  and  Kyoto  are  the  seats 
of  important  manufactures. 

THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  In  what  direction  from  Japan  are 
the  Philippine  Islands?  What  waters  surround  them?  Through  how 
many  degrees  of  latitude  do  they  extend?  Describe  their  climate. 
Name  the  chief  island.    What  is  the  capital  ? 

The  Philippine  Islands  were  the  most  important  of  the 
Spanish  colonial  possessions,  but  the  control  of  these 
islands  passed  to  the  United  States  after  the  war  of  1898. 
There  are  about  two  thousand  islands  in  the  group,  the 
largest  being  about  the  size  of  Kentucky.  The  bulk  of 
the  population  are  Malays,  but  there  are  many  Chinese, 
and  a  few  Spaniards.  Manila  is  the  capital.  Rice,  sugar, 
Manila  hemp,  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  products. 

THE^EAST  INDIES,  OR  THE  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO.  Name 
the  largest  islands  of  this  group.  Name  the  seas  and  straits  between 
the  islands.     Describe  the  climate. 

The  surface  of  these  islands  is  rugged  and  mountain- 
ous. Among  the  islands  are  many  active  volcanoes.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile.  In  the  larger  islands  are  dense 
and  extensive  forests. 

The  greater  part  of  this  group  of  islands  belongs  to  the 
Netherlands  and  is  known  as  the  Dutch  East  Indies.    Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Malays,  but  there  are  many  Chinese 
and  a  few  Arabs.      The  Europeans,  who  are  the  ruling  • 
class,  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  population. 

Java  is  the  most  important  of  thg 
Dutch  possessions.  It  is  about  as 
large  as  the  state  of  New  York,  but 
contains  four  times  as  many  inhab-^ 
itants.  It  produces  much  cane  su- 
gar, and,  after  Brazil,  more  coffee 
than  any  other  country  in  the  world. 
Batavia  is  the  capital  and  com-< 
mercial  center  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies. 

Sumatra  produces  coffee,  black 
pepper,  rice,  and  India  rubber,  and 
has  mines  of  gold,  coal,  tin,  and 
lead.  Banca  and  Billiton  supply 
much  of  the  world's  output  of  tin. 
Borneo  is  a  little  larger  than 
Texas.  Some  parts  of  its  wooded  interior  have  not  yet 
been  explored.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Malays.  The 
northern  part  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  the  rest  to  the 
Netherlands.  The  chief  products  are  timber,  sago,  rice, 
coffee,  pepger,  gutta-percha,  tapioca,  and  tobacco. 

Supplemental  Work.  Collect  pictures  and  objects  illustrating  the 
customs  and  occupations  of  Asiatic  peoples.  Read  "  Carpenter's  Geograph- 
ical Reader,  Asia;"  "  Boy  Travellers  in  the  Far  East,"  by  T.  W.  Knox; 
"  Story  of  Japan,"  by  R.  Van  Bergen  ;  "  When  I  was  a  Boy  in  China,'' 
by  Yan  Phou  Lee ;  "  Child  Life  in  Chinese  Homes,"  by  Mrs.  Bryson ; 
"  Our  Boys  in  China"  and  "  Our  Boys  in  India,"  by  H.  W.  French  ;  "Old 
Deccan  Days,"  edited  by  Frere  ;  "  With  Clive  in  India "  and  "  On  the 
Irrawaddy,"  by  Henty  ;  "  Java,"  by  S.  J.  Higginson ;  "  The  Lost  City," 
by  David  Ker ;  "  Life  with  Trans-Siberian  Savages,"  by  B.  D.  Howard; 
"  Tent  Life  in  Siberia,"  by  Kennan  ;  "  For  Name  and  Fame,"  by  Henty ; 
"Behind  an  Eastern  Veil,"  by  C.  J.  Wills;  "For  the  Temple,"  by 
Henty  ;  selections  from  Longfellow's  "  Poems  of  Places." 


CORRELATIONS  AND  COMPARISONS. 


Extent.  How  does  Eurasia  compare  in  size  with  the  other  grand 
divisions?  How  does  Asia?  How  does  Europe?  How  do  the  two 
parts  of  the  grand  division  compare  with  each  other?  With  which  of 
the  other  grand  divisions  is  communication  from  Eurasia  easiest?  With 
which  is  it  most  important?    Why? 

Coast.  Compare  Arabia  and  Spain  in  size;  in  latitude;  in  surface; 
in  climate.  Compare  the  Italian  and  Indian  peninsulas;  the  Grecian 
and  Malay  peninsulas.  Compare  Kamchatka  and  the  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula in  latitude,  direction,  surface,  climate.  Compare  Korea  and  the 
Danish  peninsula.  Compare  the  Japanese  and  the  British  islands  in  po- 
sition, latitude,  size,  climate.  Are  the  seas  of  Europe  or  of  Asia  more 
inclosed?  Name  and  locate  the  closed  or  nearly  closed  seas  and  gulfs 
of  Eurasia ;  the  open  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays. 

Surface.  Compare  the  European  and  Asiatic  highlands  in  length, 
extent,  height.  In  which  of  these  divisions  is  there  easier  communica- 
tion between  different  river  systems?  Why?  In  which  of  these  divi- 
sions are  the  highlands  a  barrier  between  life  regions?  Compare  the 
Spanish  and  Balkan  plateaus  with  the  plateaus  of  Iran  and  Tibet  in 
extent,  height,  and  drainage.  Compare  the  Pyrenees  with  the  Caucasus 
in  length,  direction,  and  probable  effect  on  travel  and  life  forms. 
Compare  the  Alps  with  the  Himalayas ;  the  Apennines  with  the  Western 
Ghats.  Compare  the  rivers  of  the  northern  slope,  in  Asia  and  in  Europe, 
in  length  and  usefulness.  Compare  the  rivers  of  the  great  basin  of  in- 
terior drainage  in  the  two  divisions.  Compare  the  Ural  and  the  Volga 
with  the  Syr  and  the  Amu  in  direction,  length,  and  outlet.  Compare 
the  Ural  and  the  Volga  with  the  Don  and  the  Dnieper.  Compare  the 
Rhone  valley  with  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  in  extent,  climate,  pro- 
ductions, and  commercial  advantages.  Compare  the  Po  valley  with 
the  plains  of  India;  the  Danube  valley  with  the  plains  of  China.  Com- 
pare the  Amur  and  Mekong  rivers  in  length,  direction,  and  usefulness. 
Compare  the  northern  and  the  southern  streams  of  Asia  in  extent  of 
basin  and  volume  of  water.  Explain  these  differences.  Compare  the 
lakes  of  northern  and  southern  Eurasia  in  number,  size,  and  causes. 
Compare  the  lakes  of  Eurasia  and  North  America.  Study  the  map  and 
the  text  of  Eurasia  for  some  examples  of  the  effects  of  water  erosion; 
of  deposition;  of  glacial  action;  of  wind  action;  of  subsidence;  of  up- 
heaval; of  surface  movements  now  in  progress. 

Climate.  |Compare  the  heat  belts  of  Eurasia  and  North  America, 
and  give  some  reasons  for  their  similarity  of  position.  JFind  and  account 
for  some  differences  in  the  distribution  of  heat  in  these  two  grand  divi- 
sions. Is  the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  Eurasia  and  in  North  America 
as  similar  as  the  distribution  of  heat?  :  Why?  i  Why  is  the  region  of 
moderately  heavy  rainfall  more  extensive  in  Europe  than  in  western 
North  America?!  Explain  the  regions  of  heavy  rains  in  western 
Europe  and  in  western  North  America.  Explain  the  regions  of  moder- 
ately heavy  rain  in  eastern  North  America  and  in  eastern  and  south- 
eastern Asia.  Compare  the  regions  of  little  or  no  rain  in'the  two  grand 
divisions;  show  that  their  causes  are  the  same,  and  why  their  positions 
are  different. 

Life.  Compare  the  maps  of  temperature,  rainfall,  and  vegetation: 
what  are  the  two  necessities  for  the  growth  of  dense  forests?  Show  that 
in  Eurasia  the  absence  of  either  of  these  features  in  any  region  affects 
its  vegetation.  Find  examples  of  forest-covered  mountain  regions. 
Why  are  the  forests  still  found  there?  Locate  some  regions  with- 
out forests  from  natural  causes;  some  made  so  by  man.  Show  that  in 
Eurasia  increase  in  elevation  is  accompanied  by  some  of  the  same  differ- 
ences in  distribution  of  life  as  is  increase  of  latitude.  Find  some  river 
valleys  of  Eurasia  which  are  forested  regions;  find  some  which  are 
grassy  land.  Which  of  these  two  classes  of  valleys  is  the  more  densely 
inhabited  ?  In  what  plains  have  the  people  reduced  the  forested  area? 
Compare  the  transitional  regions  of  eastern  and  western  Asia  in  climate ; 
in  life  forms.  What  kinds  of  wild  animals  might  be  found  in  traveling 
from  north  to  south  through  central  Asia? 

Man.  What  parts  of  Eurasia  were  first  known  to  geographers? 
Which  of  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Eurasia  first  became  completely 
known?  Compare  the  population  maps  with  the  physical  map,  the  heat 
and  rainfall  maps,  and  the  vegetation  map.     Are  the  highlands  or  the 


lowlands  of  Eurasia  generally  more  densely  peopled?  Why?  Is  Asia 
or  Europe  more  evenly  peopled?  Why?  Are  the  densely  peopled  re- 
gions mainly  in  very  cold,  in  very  hot,  or  in  temperate  regions?  Is  any 
part  of  the  region  which  is  always  hot  sparsely  peopled?  Why?  What 
two  temperature  regions,  as  a  whole,  are  most  sparsely  populated?  Com- 
pare the  regions  of  little  or  no  rain  with  the  regions  of  sparse  population, 
and  explain  their  relations.  Are  the  forested  regions  or  grassy  regions 
of  Eurasia  more  densely  peopled?  Why?  Compare  the  civilizations  of 
Europe  and  America  in  age;  in  rapidity  of  progress;  in  present  condi- 
tion. Compare  the  civilizations  of  Europe  and  Asia  in  age ;  in  rapidity 
of  progress ;  in  effect  upon  the  civilizing  of  the  world ;  in  present  condi- 
tion. What  races  are  represented  in  Europe;  in  Asia?  What  is  the 
chief  race  in  each?  Where  is  the  most  numerous  Aryan  population  of 
Asia;  the  most  numerous  Mongolian  population  of  Europe?  Compare 
the  chief  forms  of  government  in  Europe  and  America;  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  In  which  division  of  Eurasia  are  there  nations  which  own  large 
foreign  possessions?  In  which  division  are  there  large  territories  owned 
by  foreign  nations?  What  is  the  chief  religion  in  Europe?  What  are 
the  chief  religions  of  Asia?  What  forms  of  Christianity  prevail  in  the 
various  parts  of  Europe?  What  religions  other  than  Christianity  exist 
in  Europe?  Where?  Where  is  Christianity  chiefly  believed  in  Asia? 
In  what  form? 

Industries.  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  regions  of  Europe? 
What  are  the  characteristic  crops  of  each?  What  are  the  chief  agricul- 
tural regions  of  Asia?  Compare  the  chief  agricultural  products  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Where  are  there  herding  regions  in  Europe;  in  Asia? 
Where  is  the  original  home  of  many  domestic  animals?  Name  some 
domesticated  animals  employed  in  one  of  the  divisions  of  Eurasia,  but 
not  in  the  other.  Compare  the  methods  of  forest  preservation  and  forest 
destruction  in  America  and  various  parts  of  Europe.  Compare  the 
kinds  of  wood  obtained  from  Europe  and  from  Asia.  Compare  the 
mineral  products  of  western  Europe  and  of  southeastern  Asia.  What 
are  the  great  mining  countries  of  Eurasia?  What  are  the  chief  minerals 
obtained  in  each?  Compare  the  manufacturing  methods  employed  in 
Europe  and  in  North  America;  in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  Compare  the 
character  of  the  chief  European  and  Asiatic  manufactured  products. 
Where  are  the  chief  commercial  nations  of  Europe;  of  Asia?  Compare 
the  facilities  for  commerce  in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  What  are  some  of 
the  effects  of  this  difference  upon  the  lives  of  the  people?  Give  several 
routes  by  which  goods  may  be  taken  from  eastern  Asia  to  western  Eu- 
rope, giving  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  each  route. 

Countries.  Including  wealth,  manufactures,  commerce,  possessions, 
power,  and  civilization,  what  do  you  think  is  the  greatest  country  of 
Eurasia?  Give  reasons  for  your  choice.  Compare  France  and  Ger- 
many in  size,  agricultural  products,  minerals,  manufactures,  people,  re- 
ligion, and  government.  Compare  the  German  Empire  and  Austria- 
Hungary  in  size,  products,  people,  and  prosperity.  Give  reasons  for 
some  of  the  differences  you  mention.  What  are  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries? What  characteristics  have  they  in  common?  Give  some  distinc- 
tive characteristic  of  each.  Name  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Give 
their  common  and  distinctive  characteristics.  Compare  Belgium  and 
Holland.  In  what  respects  does  Switzerland  resemble  each  country  on 
her  borders?  Give  some  distinctive  characteristics  of  Switzerland. 
Five  very  small  countries  have  been  mentioned  in  Europe;  name  them 
and  tell  what  country  really  controls  each.  Name  two  empires  each  of 
which  covers  continuous  territory  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Compare  them 
in  size,  products,  people,  religion,  government,  and  power.  Compare 
China  and  Japan.  Compare  Persia  and  Arabia.  Compare  the  Asiatic 
possessions  of  the  British  and  the  French;  the  British  and  the  Dutch. 

Cities.  Give  an  account  of  a  merchant's  voyage  from  London  to 
Bombay  and  back  again,  describing  both  cities  and  telling  what  goods  he 
carries  on  each  trip.  Describe  similarly  a  voyage  from  Paris  to  St 
Petersburg;  from  Bordeaux  to  Calcutta;  from  Bombay  to  Hongkong; 
from  Singapore  to  Liverpool;  from  Lisbon  to  Copenhagen;  from  Ham- 
burg to  Constantinople;  from  Marseilles  to  Yokohama;  from  Stockholm 
to  Naples.  Make  several  other  such  voyages  between  places  which  you 
yourself  select. 


143 


Scale,  600  mfles  to  one  inch,  same  as  Che  maps  of 
North  America,  South  America,  Eurasia,  and  Australia 

scale  op  miles 

q"      100   200    300    100    600    000    700    800    900   1000 

The  highlands  above  2000  feet  are  shown  in 
the  buff  tints,  the  lowlands  In  the  green  tints 
and  the  submerged  part  of  tL    continental  pl&' 
.   teau  in  the  ligh*  blur  tint. 

r-       


40         Gre 


t.v  rmauHweiL 


AFRICA. 


Extent  and  Coast.  What  part  of  the  continental  plateau  does  Africa 
occupy  ?  By  what  is  this  grand  division  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
Eastern  Continent1?  What  oceans  border  if?  In  what  zones  does  it 
lie  ?  What  American  city  has  about  the  latitude  of  the  northern  point  of 
Africa ;  of  the  southern  point  ?  How  does  Africa  rank  among  the  grand 
divisions  in  size  ?    Compare  its  extent  with  that  of  North  America. 

How  does  Africa  compare  with  the  other  grand  divisions  in  regularity 
of  coast  line  ?  It  has  even  fewer  good  harbors  than  South  America. 
What  gulf  is  on  the  west  coast  ?  What  two  bights  or  bays  ?  What 
two  gulfs  and  strait  are  on  the  north  ?  What  gulf  and  channel  are  on 
the  east?  What  strait  connects  the  Gulf  of  Aden  with  the  Red  Sea? 
Name  the  capes  at  the  northern,  eastern,  southern,  and  western  ex- 
tremities of  Africa.  Name  another 
cape  near  the  southern  extremity. 
What  large  island  is  east  of  Africa  ? 
Is  it  a  continental  or  an  oceanic 
island  ?  Name  some  oceanic  islands 
west  of  Africa  (small  map). 

Surface.  Review  the  lesson  on 
the  highlands  of  the  world  (p.  10). 
What  part  of  Africa  is  mostly  high- 
land?   What  part  is  mostly  lowland? 


Highlands.  Most  of  the 
southeastern  half  of  Africa 
is  a  continuous  plateau  ex- 
tending from  the  Strait  of 
Bab  el  Mandeb  to  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  It  is  highest 
in  the  northeast,  but  in  gen- 
eral the  margins  are  more 
elevated  than  the  interior, 
and  are  about  a  mile  high. 
From  this  great  plateau  three  narrow  and  roughly  parallel 
tongues  of  highland  extend  far  to  the  northwest  —  one 
along  the  Red  Sea  coast,  one  through  the  center  of  the 
grand  division,  and  one,  broken  into  a  succession  of  pla- 
teaus, along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

There  are  many  detached  mountain  ranges  on  the  plateau,  but  none 
of  any  very  great  length  or  elevation.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  pla- 
teau region  are  many  evidences  of  volcanic  activity,  and  the  frequent 
earthquakes  indicate  that  the  region  may  still  be  undergoing  upheaval. 
Mt.  Kenia  and  Mt.  Kilimanjaro  in  this  region  are  huge  cones  of  extinct 
volcanoes  nearly  four  miles  high.  They  are  the  only  peaks  of  Africa 
that  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

A  narrow  isolated  highland  in  the  extreme  northwest  contains  the 
longest  and  most  definitely  marked  mountain  range  of  Africa.    Name  it. 

Lowlands.  South  of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  northwestern 
Africa  is  mostly  a  continuous  lowland,  with  broad  south- 
ward extensions  on  either  side  of  the  central  highland 
tongue.  The  coast  lowlands  decrease  in  width  toward  the 
south,  and  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  grand  divi- 
sion are  exceedingly  narrow. 

Climate.  What  part  of  Africa  is  always  hot?  (map,  p.  25.)  What 
parts  have  temperate  winters  and  hot  summers  ?  Has  any  other  grand 
division  a  northern  and  a  southern  region  of  temperate  winters  ?  Why  ? 
What  part  of  Africa  is  always  temperate  ?    Which  other  grand  division 


AB0  ftSBft  --- 


An  oasis  in  southern  Algeria. 


most  resembles  Africa  in  the  distribution  of  heat  belts  ?  What  belt  of 
calms  crosses  northern  Africa  (p.  26) ;  southern  Africa  ?  How  does  this 
affect  the  rainfall  of  these  regions  ?  What  belt  of  calms  sweeps  north- 
ward and  southward  over  central  Africa?  (p.  27.)  How  does  this  affect 
the  rainfall  of  that  region  ?  At  what  season  is  the  rain  belt  farthest  south 
in  Africa ;  farthest  north  ?  At  what  times  of  the  year  do  the  rainy  and 
dry  seasons  occur  in  the  different  parts  of  central  Africa  ? 

Drainage.  Which  slope  of  the  continental  divide  of  Africa  contains 
the  greater  rivers?  Name  five  great  river  systems  of  Africa  (p.  16). 
Do  all  these  rivers  flow  from  the  region  of  abundant  rainfall  ?  (map, 
p.  26.)    Between  what  arms  of  the  highlands  is  the  Nile  River?    In 

what  lakes  does  it  rise  ?    Name  its 
chief  branches. 

What  two  great  rivers  flow  into 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  ?  Between  what 
arms  of  the  plateau  is  the  greater 
part  of  their  courses  ?  Each  of  these 
rivers  has  cut  through  the  western 
arm  to  reach  the  sea.  What  is  the 
chief  eastern  branch  of  the  Niger  ? 
What  lakes  are  near  the  sources  of 
the  Kongo  ?  How  does  the  Kongo 
compare  with  the  other  rivers  of 
Africa  in  number  of  tributaries? 
How  does  its  basin  compare  with 
that  of  the  Nile  in  size  and  rain- 
fall? 

What  large  river  of  South  Africa 
flows  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?    How 
does  the  climate  of  its  valley  re- 
semble that  of  the  Nile  valley  ?  What 
two  rivers  of  southern  Africa  flow 
to  the  Indian  Ocean  ?    What  large 
lake  is  tributary  to  the  Zambezi  ? 
Compare  the  lake  region  of  eastern  Africa  with  that  of  North  America 
in  the  number  and  size  of  its  lakes.    What  lake  is  between  the  central 
and  western  highland  tongues  ?    What  river  system  is  tributary  to  this 
lake  ?    What  small  lake  in  southern  Africa  has  no  outlet  ? 

Trace  the  continental  divide  of  Africa,  and  describe  the  two  chief 
slopes  and  each  of  the  drainage  basins. 

The  Kongo  and  the  Niger  carry  about  half  of  the 
drainage  waters  of  Africa.  The  Kongo  ranks  next  to  the 
Amazon  in  volume  among  the  world's  great  rivers. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri,  the  Nile  is 
the  longest  river  in  the  world,  but  it  ranks  only  fourth  among 
African  rivers  in  the  amount  of  water  discharged.  Why 
is  this  so  ?  The  water  which  falls  during  the  rainy  season 
in  equatorial  Africa  causes  the  lower  portion  of  the  Nile  to 
overflow  its  banks,  thus  irrigating  and  fertilizing  its  flood 
plain  through  the  arid  region. 

The  African  rivers  flowing  from  the  moist  plateau  are  generally  ob- 
structed in  their  middle  or  lower  courses  by  cataracts  or  waterfalls,  which 
interrupt  the  navigation  that  is  possible  above  and  below  the  falls.  The 
lowest  cataracts  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Niger  are  above  700  miles  from 
the  sea.  But  in  the  Kongo  cascades  occur  where  it  cuts  through  the 
western  highland  arm,  much  nearer  its  mouth.  The  Zambezi  and  the 
Orange  rivers  have  many  falls  and  are  not  extensively  navigated.  The 
Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambezi  rival  those  of  Niagara  in  grandeur. 


145 


146 


PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Some  animals  of  Africa. 


Lake  T^had,  although  having  no  outlet  to  the  sea,  is  a  fresh-water 
lake.  When  do  the  rains  fall  in  this  region  ?  (p.  27.)  At  that  season 
the  lake  is  a  sheet  of  water  overflowing  by  an  outlet  to  the  northeast  into 
a  lower  region.  In  the  dry  season  the  lake  becomes  a  great  marsh,  and 
its  outlet  is  a  wady,  or  dry  stream  bed.  Near  the  southern  edge  of  the 
Atlas  highland  are  several  deep  depressions  in  the  lowlands,  called 
shotts  ;  they  contain  salt  lakes  during  part  of  the  year. 

Life.  What  animals  and  plants  are  peculiar  to  the  African  life  re- 
gion? (pp.  30,  31.)  Where  are  the  dense  forests?  Where  are  the  open 
forests  ?  Where  are  the  deserts  ?  (map,  p.  28.)  What  is  the  great  north- 
ern desert  region  called  (map,  p.  144) ;  the  southern  desert  region  ? 

More  than  a  third  of  Africa  consists  of  deserts.  Some 
parts  of  these  arid  regions  are  covered  with  shifting  sands 
and  wind-formed  dunes,  with  here  and  there  fertile  oases. 
Other  parts  are  stony  and  barren,  and  still  others  rough 
and  mountainous.  In  the  oases  grow  date  palms  and 
such  other  plants  as  thrust  their  roots  deep  down  to  the 
ground  water.  Along  the  edges  of  the  deserts  are  plains 
where  grow  acacias  and  rough  grasses  like  those  of  our 
own  plateau  region. 

In  the  dense  forests  of  central  Africa  are  sago  and  oil 
palms,  mimosa  and  rubber  trees,  besides  the  other  plants 
peculiar  to  this  life  region.  Along  the  coasts  are  marshes, 
where  are  mangrove  trees  and  enormous  grasses  resem- 
bling cane  and  bamboo.  Where  are  the  grass  lands  of 
Africa  ?  (map,  p.  28.) 

More  large  wild  animals  are  found  in  Africa  than  in 


any  other  of  the  grand  divisions.  But  these  are  rapidly 
being  exterminated  by  white  hunters.  Snakes  and  insects 
abound. 

People.  To  what  race  do  most  of  the  people  in  central  and  southern 
Africa  belong  ?  (p.  34.)  To  what  race  do  the  people  in  northern  Africa 
belong?  What  parts  of  Africa  have  a  dense  or  moderately  dense  popu- 
lation? (map,  p.  34.)  In  what  parts  is  the  population  very  sparse? 
How  does  the  distribution  of  people  correspond  with  the  distribution  of 
rainfall?  (map,  p.  26.) 

None  of  the  negro  tribes  in  Africa  have  advanced  to  the 
stage  of  civilization,  and  many  of  them  are  still  in  the  sav- 
age state.  The  white  peoples  who  occupy  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  are  chiefly  Arabs,  Berbers, 
and  Jews.  Many  are  quite  dark-skinned.  In  most  parts 
of  Africa,  especially  near  the  coasts,  Europeans  have  es- 
tablished missionary  settlements  and  colonies.  In  the 
south  they  have  built  towns  and  roads,  improved  the 
country,  and  introduced  the  arts  of  civilization. 

For  many  centuries  negroes  were  carried  from  Africa  into  various 
countries  as  slaves.  Into  what  parts  of  America  were  negro  slaves  in- 
troduced ?  (pp.  49,  107.)  Most  of  these  slaves  were  obtained  from  the 
countries  on  the  west  coast.  The  barbarous  tribes  in  central  Africa  still 
make  slaves  of  the  prisoners  whom  they  capture  in  war,  selling  them  to  the 
Arab  slave-dealers  from  the  eastern  coast.  These  Arabs  often  make  raids 
into  the  interior  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  ivory  and  capturing  slaves. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  on  a  large  scale  a  map  of  Africa,  nam- 
ing the  chief  natural  features.     Model  Africa.    Write  a  comparison 


AFRICA. 


147 


Egyptian  boats  on  the  Nile. 

between  northern  and  southern  Africa  in  climate,  products,  and  inhabit- 
ants. Make  a  list  of  the  African  plants  and  animals  which  you  have 
seen,  and  describe  one  of  them.  Read  "  Slavery  and  the  Slave  Trade 
in  Africa,"  by  H.  M.  Stanley,  or  "  Europe  in  Africa  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  by  M.  E.  W.  Latimer.     Begin  an  African  scrapbook. 

COUNTRIES   OF   NORTHERN   AFRICA. 

EGYPT.     What  water  boundaries  has  Egypt?     What  country  is 
northwest  1    What  river  passes  through  Egypt  1    What  ship  canal  is  in- 
cluded within  its  limits  ?    What  desert  oc- 
cupies its  western  part  ? 

The  habitable  part  of  Egypt  is 
but  a  strip  of  land  a  few  miles 
wide  that  can  be  irrigated  by  the 
waters  of  the  Nile,  together  with 
its  delta.  A  great  dam  at  Assouan 
retains  a  supply  of  water  to  irri- 
gate the  lower  valley  between  the 
flood  seasons.  The  fertile  flood 
plain  is  bordered  by  steep,  rocky 
bluffs,  beyond  which  stretches  the 
desert.  The  southern  boundary  is 
undetermined,  but  Egypt  claims 
Nubia  and  the  fertile  grassy  region 
called  Kordofan. 

Agriculture  is  the   chief  occu- 
pation, but  the  methods  are  very 
primitive;    the    soil   is   not    even 
plowed,   but   the   seeds  are   scat- 
tered, and  then  trampled  in  by  oxen.    The  water  supply  is 
lifted  from  the  river  by  wheels  or  pumps,  and  distributed 
by  dikes  and  ditches.     Wheat,  corn,  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
rice,  and  semitropical  fruits  are  grown.     Donkeys,  oxen, 
camels,  and  sheep  are  raised,  and  hosts  of  pigeons. 

There  are  but  few  manufactures  except  handmade  embroideries,  jew- 
elry, and  leather  work.  The  Nile  River  and  a  line  of  railroad  up  its 
valley  are  the  principal  means  of  transportation.  Cotton,  cotton  seed, 
and  sugar  are  exported  in  exchange  for  cloth,  tobacco,  timber,  and  coal. 
By  far  the  most  important  commercial  route,  however,  is  the  ship  canal 
which  Europeans  have  constructed  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and 


through  which  passes  a  large  part  of  the  commerce  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  What  ports  are  at  the  two  ends  of  this  canal  ?  (see  corner  map, 
p.  144.) 

The  mass  of  the  laboring  people  are  of  mixed  Arab  and  negro  blood. 
The  more  cultivated  people  are  the  Copts,  descendants  of  the  ancient  rul- 
ing class.  There  are  also  many  Turks  and  Arabs,  and  a  few  Europeans. 
Most  of  the  people  are  Mohammedans,  but  the  Copts  profess  Christianity. 

The  ruler  of  Egypt  is  an  absolute  monarch  called  the  khedive,  but  he 
pays  tribute  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  In  reality,  however,  the  govern- 
ment is  controlled  by  Great  Britain. 

What  is  the  capital  ?  It  is  about  the  size  of  St.  Louis, 
and  is  the  largest  city  of  Africa.  Near  Cairo  are  the  great 
pyramids,  which  are  among  the  oldest  structures  in  the 
world.     Alexandria  is  the  chief  seaport  of  Egypt. 

Many  people  visit  Egypt  to  see  the  pyramids,  temples,  and  to'mbs  built 
thousands  of  years  ago  when  this  region  was  the  center  of  the  learnipg  and 
the  civilization  of  the  world.     From  the  pictures  found  in  these  moriu-  ■ 
ments,  and  the  inscriptions  carved  upon  them,  much  has  been  learned 
concerning  ancient  Egyptian  life.  .^. 

THE  BARBARY  STATES.  What  four  states  occupy  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  west  of  Egypt  ?  By  what  region  are  they  bounded  on  the 
south  1    Which  are  traversed  by  the  Atlas  Mountains  f 

The  eastern  part  of  this  region  is  too  dry  for  agricultui'e 
except  in  occasional  oases.  In  the  western  part,  where  the 
rainfall  is  greater,  grain  is  grown  on  the  plateaus,  and 
tropical  fruits  on  the  lower  lands.  But  the  methods  of 
agriculture  are  generally  rude,  and  the  crops  are  small. 
Many  mules,  horses,  camels,  and  goats  are  raised,  and 
along  the  coasts  fishing  and  the  collection  of  sponges  and 
coral  are  important  industries.  There  is  some 
hand  manufacture  of  woolen  and  silk  goods, 
shawls,  carpets,  felt,  and  leather. 

The  exports  are  fruits,  grains,  olive  oil, 
wine,  wool,  skins,  wax,  cork,  esparto  grass 
used  for  making  cordage  and  paper,  and 
ostrich  feathers  brought  across  the  Sahara. 

The  native  peoples  are  chiefly  Mohammedans.    They 

include  Berbers,  who  are  mostly  farmers ;  Arabs,  who 

wander  about  with  their  flocks  and  herds ;  and  Moors, 

who  are  closely  related  to  the  Arabs  but  live  in  the 

towns.    The  leading  merchants  and  traders  are  Jews. 

There    are    also   many   negro 

slaves.    In  Algeria  and  Tunis 

there  are  quite  a  number  of 

Europeans. 

These  four  countries  are 
sometimes  called  the  Barbary 
States,  from  the  Berbers,  who 
were  the  first  inhabitants.  All 
were  formerly  tributary  to 
Turkey,  and  the  most  eastern 
is  still  a  part  of  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

What  is  the  capital  of 
Tripoli?  Its  bazars  are 
rich  in  ostrich  plumes, 
ivory,  and  slaves  brought 
across  the  desert.  Mo- 
rocco is  ruled  by  an  abso- 
lute monarch  called  the 
a  Morocco  merchant.  sultan.     What    are    the 


148 


PARTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 


A  camp  on  the  Sahara. 

chief  towns?  The  sultan  resides  part  of  the  time  in  one 
and  part  of  the  time  in  the  other.  Algeria  is  part  of  the 
French  Republic.  What  is  its  capital?  It  is  the  chief 
commercial  city  and  seaport.  At  Oran  there  are  valuable 
marble  quarries.  Biskra,  in  a  beautiful  oasis  on  the  edge 
of  the  desert,  is  the  terminus  of  important  caravan  routes. 
The  government  of  Tunis  is  nominally  still  in  the  hands  of 
a  native  ruler  called  the  bey,  but  a  French  resident  really  has 
most  of  the  governing  power.  What  is  the  capital  of  this 
country  ? 

THE  SAHARA.  How  does  the  Sahara  compare  with  the  United 
States  in  size  ? 

The  word  Sahara  means  "desert,"  and  the  region  to 
which  it  is  applied  is  the  largest  desert  in  the  world.  This 
region  ig  not  entirely  arid,  however,  for  there  are  many 
oases ;  some  of  them  are  many  miles  in  extent,  and  there 
date  palms,  olive  trees,  wheat,  and  barley  are  grown.  The 
region  is  very  sparsely  peopled  by  wandering  tribes  of 
Arabs.  The  most  important  product  of  the  Sahara  is 
salt  from  deposits  at  Kawar  and  Taudeni.  Most  of  this  is 
bartered  to  the  natives  of  central  Africa. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out  about  the  life  and  work  of  "  Chinese 
Gordon."  Find  out  about  the  troubles  our  country  once  had  with  the 
Barbary  pirates.  Read  "A  Family  Flight  over  Egypt  and  Syria,"  by 
Hale ;  "  The  Romance  of  a  Mummy,"  by  T.  Gautier ;  "  Winters  in  Al- 
geria," by  F.  A.  Bridgeman ;  or  "-The  Cat  of  Bubastes,"  by  Henty. 

CENTRAL  AFRICA. 

Central  Africa  includes  the  region  between  the  Sahara  and  the  Zam- 
bezi River.  Describe  the  surface  and  drainage  of  this  region ;  the  dis- 
tribution of  heat  and  moisture.  Where  are  the  forests'?  (map,  p.  28.) 
Where  are  the  prairies?  What  is  the  region  just  south  of  the  Sahara 
called?  (p.  144.) 

The  climate  of  the  central  plateau  is  more  healthful 
than  that  of  the  coast,  and  the  soil  is  generally  fertile. 
The  forests  contain  valuable  woods,  rubber-yielding  vines, 
trees  yielding  gums  from  which  varnish  is  made,  the 
palm,  from  whose  fruit  is  obtained  palm  oil  used  in  mak- 
ing soap,  and  other  useful  plants.  In  these  forests  are 
herds  of  elephants,  and  in  the  rivers  are  hippopotamuses. 


The  tusks  and  teeth  of  these  animals  are  exported  as 
ivory.  In  parts  of  the  region  the  tsetse  fly  carries  a  dis- 
ease that  is  fatal  to  cattle  and  horses;  but  through- 
out the  upper  meadow  lands  cattle  and  sheep  may  be 
raised,  while  bananas,  corn,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  cacao, 
sugar,  and,  at  higher  elevations,  wheat  can  be  grown 
with  ease. 

This  region  is  the  true  home  of  the  negro,  and  in  it  live  most  of  the 
negroes  in  the  world.  What  part  of  the  region  is  most  densely  peopled? 
(map,  p.  34.)  The  natives  of  the  interior  are  generally  more  intelligent 
and  sturdy  than  those  near  the  coast.  Many  of  them  weave  a  cloth  of 
palm  fiber,  make  rude  canoes,  spears,  and  bows  and  arrows,  and  many 
use  firearms  and  weapons  obtained  from  white  men.  Some  cultivate 
the  soil,  and  some  are  good  fishermen.  In  this  region  also  live  the  pyg- 
mies, a  dwarfish  people  of  the  black  race.  The  eastern  Sudan  is  occu- 
pied by  a  Mohammedan  people  of  mixed  Arab  and  negro  descent,  who 
have  disputed  the  Egyptian  control  of  this  region. 

It  is  only  recently  that  central  Africa  has  been  explored 
by  civilized  man,  but  now  five  European  nations  claim 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  region. 

Name  and  locate  the  regions  claimed  by  various  European  nations  on 
the  east  coast  between  the  Strait  of  Bab  el  Mandeb  and  the  Zambezi 
(small  map,  p.  144) ;  on  the  west  coast  of  central  Africa,  south  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Niger.  What  state  occupies  much  of  the  interior  of  equa- 
torial Africa?  Locate  and  name  the  owners  of  the  divisions  of  the 
west  coast  between  the  Niger  and  Cape  Verde.  What  European  nat&n 
claims  most  of  the  interior  of  this  region  ? 

The  European  "  possessions  "  in  central  Africa  have  generally  grown 
from  a  few  trading  settlements  made  along  the  coasts  by  white  men. 
After  the  traders  had  secured  a  foothold,  the  home  government  sent  ouj 
soldiers  and  officers  to  protect  and  manage  the  affairs  of  the  colony,  and 
to  extend  its  "  sphere  of  influence "  in  the  tributary  country  in  the' 
interior. 

The  exports  from  most  of  these  possessions  are  similar, 
and  consist  chiefly  of  palm  oil,  rubber,  ivory,  varnish  gums, 
hides,  and  some  cotton,  sugar,  and  coffee. 

Sierra  Leone  was  founded  during  the  time  when  the  slave  trade  was 
flourishing,  and  was  intended  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  negroes  rescued 
from  slave  ships.  Liberia  is  a  negro  republic.  It  was  formed  during 
the  time  of  slavery  in  our  country  by  some  of  our  citizens  as  a  home  for 
freed  slaves  from  the  United  States.  Its  capital  was  named  after  one  of 
our  presidents. 

The  Kongo  State  was  established  by  the  European  powers  for  the  pur- 
poses of  trade.    The  King  of  the  Belgians  was  chosen  its  ruler,  although 


Trading  post  on  the  Kongo. 


AFRICA. 


149 


it  has  no  connection  with  the  Bel- 
gian government,  and  trade  is  open 
to  all  nations  on  the  same  conditions. 

The  Italians  have  control  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  east  coast,  but 
they  have  been  unable  to  conquer 
the  native  kingdom  of  Abyssinia. 
The  Abyssinians  have  reached  a  low 
stage  of  civilization,  and  profess 
Christianity.  They  are  shrewd  trad- 
ers, raise  horses,  sheep,  and  camels, 
and  produce  fine  handmade  woven 
fabrics  and  leather  goods. 

One  of  the  most  important  posts 
on  the  east  coast  is  the  island  of  Zan- 
zibar, which,  with  the  island  of  Pem- 
ba,  is  ruled  by  a  native  sultan  under 
British  control.  Cloves  and  other 
central  African  products  are  ex- 
ported. 

To  what  European  country  does 
the  great  island  of  Madagascar  belong?  The  natives  of  thfirwjestern  part 
are  black  savages ;  those  of  the  eastern  part,  a  Malay  people/fcalled  Hovas, 
are  somewhat  civilized.  They  had  formed  an  absolute  kingdom  before 
France  took  possession  of  the  island.  The  French  are  now  building  roads 
and  opening  up  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country.    Name  the  capital. 

Mauritius,  a  British  colony,  and  Reunion,  a  French  possession,  produce 
large  quantities  of  sugar,  also  rice,  cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  and  spices. 

Supplemental  Work.    Read  "  My  Kalulu,"  by  Stanley,  or  "  Five 
Years  with  the  Congo  Cannibals,"  by  Herbert  Ward  and  D.  D.  Bidwell. 


SOUTH  AFRICA. 

South  Africa  includes  the  region  south  of  the  Zambezi  River.  De- 
scribe the  surface  and  drainage  of  this  region;  its  distribution  of  heat 
and  moisture.  Locate  the  forests  (map,  p.  28) ;  the  prairie  regions ;  the 
deserts. 

The  surface  of  south  Africa  rises  quite  rapidly  by  a 
series  of  terraces  from  a  narrow  coast  plain  to  a  gently 
undulating,  treeless  plateau,  called  the  veldt.  On  the  east- 
ern and  southern  slopes  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to  sup- 
port forests  of  palm,  ebony,  and  rubber  trees  toward  the 
north,  while  olives,  cypresses,  and  some  evergreens  flour- 
ish farther  south.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  plateau  there 
is  enough  moisture  to  make  excellent  pasturage,  but  the 
western  portion  is  mostly  a  desert. 

While  the  eastern  lowland  slopes  are  well  adapted  for 
the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane,  coffee,  cotton,  and  wheat, 
the  uplands  are  better  adapted  for  herding,  and  vast  num- 
bers of  sheep,  cattle,  and  goats  are  raised. 

The  region  is  rich  in  minerals.  At  Kimberley,  north 
of  the  Orange  River,  are  the  chief  diamond  mines  of  the 
world,  and  farther  northeast  are  extensive  gold  mines. 

South  Africa  contains  the  most  flourishing  European  colonies  of  the 
grand  division.  What  European  country  owns  the  greater  part  of  south 
Africa?  (small  map,  p.  144.)  What  other  countries  own  part  of.  the 
coasts  ?  What  is  the  climate  of  the  German  territory  t  Because  of  its 
dryness  this  territory  is  of  little  value.  What  bay  indents  the  southern 
coast  of  Portuguese  East  Africa  ?  The  Portuguese  colonies  are  not  pro- 
gressive, but  some  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton  are  exported. 

The  British  colony  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  usually  called 
Cape  Colony,  is  in  the  extreme  south.  Orange  River 
Colony  and  Transvaal  Colony  comprise  the  territory  of  two 
Boer  republics,  which  were  annexed  by  Great  Britain. 


Sorting  gravel  for  diamonds,  South  Africa. 


These  are  the  most  progres- 
sive countries  of  Africa. 
Many  miles  of  railroad  have 
been  built,  and  the  towns 
have  well-paved  streets,  elec- 
tric lights,  and  street  cars. 

The  natives  of  this  part  of  south 
Africa  have  either  been  pushed  back 
into  the  interior  or  have  partly  adopt- 
ed the  ways  of  the  white  men  and 
work  for  them  as  servants  and  la- 
borers. Uprisings  of  the  natives 
still  sometimes  occur  in  the  interior. 
While  the  British  were  settling 
the  United  States,  the  Dutch  made 
coast  settlements  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Africa.  Not  long  after 
our  Revolution,  the  British  took  pos- 
session of  these  settlements.  Many 
of  the  Dutch  farmers,  or  Boers,  not  liking  English  rule,  moved  northward 
and  founded  the  two  republics.  Previous  to  the  annexation  by  Great 
Britain,  the  Orange  Free  State  was  independent,  but  the  South  African 
Republic,  or  Transvaal,  was  subject  to  Great  Britain  in  foreign  affairs. 

What  is  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony?  It  is  also  the 
chief  port.  The  exports  are  gold,  diamonds,  wool,  goat's 
hair,  feathers,  hides,  and  a  little  wine.  Port  Elizabeth 
also  has  an  active  commerce. 

What  is  the  capital  of  Orange  River  Colony?  What 
are  the  chief  towns  of  the  Transvaal  Colony?     Johan- 


South  African  ox  team. 

nesburg  is  the  center  of  the  gold-mining  region.  These 
places  are  connected  with  the  coast  by  railroad.  The  ex- 
ports of  thes^  colonies  are  similar  to  those  of  Cape  Colony. 

Supplemental  Work.  Find  out  about  the  life  and  work  of  Cecil 
Rhodes.  Read  "  Home  Life  on  an  Ostrich  Farm,"  by  Annie  Martin ; 
"  The  Story  of  South  Africa,"  by  G.  M.  Theal ;  or  "  Yankee  Girls  in  Zulu- 
land,"  by  Louise  V.  Sheldon. 

TOPICS  ON  AFRICA. 

I.  Physical  Features.  Extent:  latitude;  longitude.  Surface: 
highlands  —  distribution,  mountains;  lowlands  —  interior,  coastal. 
Drainage :  divide ;  rivers  —  sources,  mouths,  size,  obstructions,  useful- 
ness; lakes.  Climate:  heat  belts;  winds;  moisture— distribution,  causes. 
II.  Life.  Vegetable:  distribution;  reasons;  peculiar  plants.  Ani- 
mal :  regions ;  barriers  ;  chief  animals.  Man :  races  —  distribution ; 
density  —  distribution,  causes;  history  —  early  civilization,  the  slave 
trade. 

III.  Products.    Vegetable;  animal;  mineral. 

IV.  Countries.  European  settlements :  independent ;  colonial.  Na- 
tive states :  dependent ;  independent. 


AUSTKALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 


AUSTRALIA. 

Extent  and  Coast  Line.  What  part  of  the  continental  platean  does 
Australia  occupy?  (p.  8.)  What  tropic  crosses  it  ?  Is  any  other  conti- 
nent wholly  in  the  southern  hemisphere1?  How  does  Australia  rank 
among  the  grand  divisions  in  size  ?  Compare  its  area  with  that  of  the 
United  States  (p.  157).  Name  three  indentations  of  the  coast.  On  which 
side  are  there  most  islands  ?  Name  the  chief  of  these.  What  obstacle  to 
navigation  is  parallel  to  the  northeast  coast  ? 

Surface.  Compare  Australia  with  the  other  grand  divisions  in  the 
proportion  of  lowland  and  of  highland.  In  what  part  of  Australia  is  the 
greatest  extent  of  highland  ?    Locate  the  other  highlands  of  Australia. 

As  a  whole,  the  surface  of  Australia  is  flat.  Most  of  the 
eastern  half  is  a  low  plain,  which  rises  imperceptibly  east- 


In  the  northern  forests  of  Australia. 

ward  to  form  a  narrow  but  continuous  rim  of  highland. 
The  eastern  slope  of  this  highland  is  so  steep  and  rugged 
that,  when  viewed  from  the  narrow  coast  plain,  it  appears 
as  a  range  of  mountains.  Its  loftiest  points  are  about  1£ 
miles  high,  but  in  general  it  has  less  than  half  that  eleva- 
tion. The  western  half  of  Australia  is  a  low  plateau 
which,  near  its  eastern  and  western  margins,  rises  in  places 
slightly  above  the  limit  of  lowland. 

Climate.  What  heat  belt  embraces  most  of  Australia  ?  (map,  p.  25.) 
What  part  is  always  hot  ?  What  part  is  always  temperate  ?  In  what 
season  does  Christmas  occur  in  Australia  ?  Why  ?  In  what  wind  belts 
does  Australia  lie  ?  (map,  p.  26.)  What  part  receives  a  moderately 
heavy  rainfall  ?  What  part  receives  light  rains  or  little  or  no  rain  ? 
What  calms  lie  over  central  Australia  part  of  the  year  ? 

Most  of  Australia  is  deficient  in  rainfall.  The  equa- 
torial rain  belt  brings  copious  rains  in  spring  and  summer 
to  the  north  coast,  but  the  tropical  calms  make  these  sea- 
sons dry  on  the  south  coast.  In  winter  the  tropical  calms 
lie  farther  north  and  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  bring 
rain  to  the  southwest,  while  the  north  coast  is  dry.     The 


southeast  trades  deposit  ample  moisture  at  all  seasons, 
but  especially  in  summer,  on  the  steep  eastern  slope ;  but 
much  of  the  interior  receives  little  rain  and  is  a  desert. 

Drainage.  What  is  the  largest  river  system  in  Australia  ?  Where 
are  there  other  streams  ?  Show  the  relation  between  the  location  of  the 
streams  and  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  Where  are  there  lakes? 
What  can  you  say  of  these  lakes  in  view  of  what  you  have  learned  of 
the  climate  ? 

The  Murray  River  and  its  tributary  the  Darling  are 
both  over  1,000  miles  long,  but  their  supply  of  water 
comes  mostly  from  the  eastern  highlands,  and  they  de- 
crease in  volume  as  they  advance.  For  about  half  the 
year  they  are  navigable  for  small  steamers,  but  during 
the  dry  season  they  are  greatly  reduced.  There  are  many 
short  but  beautiful  streams  along  the  east  slope  and  the 
north  coast.  In  the  interior  are  many  stream  beds,  dry 
except  after  the  infrequent  showers,  and  terminating  in 
dry  depressions  or  in  salt  lakes  or  marshes. 

Vegetable  and  Animal  Life.  What  parts  of  Australia  are  forest- 
covered?  (map,  p.  28.)  What  parts  are  grassy  lands?  What  parts  are 
deserts  ?  Review  the  lesson  on  the  Australian  life  region  (pp.  29,  30). 
Describe  some  of  the  characteristic  forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life, 
and  tell  wherein  the  Australian  life  region  differs  from  all  others. 

The  hot,  well-watered,  northeast  coast  has  forests  as 
luxuriant  as  those  of  the  Amazon  and  Kongo  valleys. 
From  these  fine  cabinet  woods  are  obtained,  and  farther 
south  on  the  east  coast  pines,  cedars,  and  great  eucalyptus 
or  gum  trees  make  excellent  building  timber.  Most  of 
the  interior,  however,  is  covered  with  a  "  scrub "  of  reed- 
like grasses  which  make  excellent  pasturage,  or,  in  the 
drier  regions,  with  an  almost  impenetrable  "bush"  of 
thorny  acacias. 

Many  of  the  smaller  animals  live  in  the  forest  regions, 


Transporting  wool,  Australia. 


151 


152 


PARTS   OF   THE  EARTH. 


Native  Australian. 


but  the  great  kangaroos 
and  the  ostrichlike  casso- 
waries and  emus  live  on 
the  open  plains. 

People.  How  does  Australia 
compare  with  Ohio  in  size;  in 
population  ?  Australia  is  the  most 
thinly  settled  of  all  the  grand 
divisions  of  the  land.  What 
part  of  Australia  is  least  sparsely 
settled?  (p.  34.)  Fully  three 
fourths  of  all  the  people  live  in 
this  southeastern  portion,  while 
much  of  the  western  portion  is 
practically  uninhabited  and  but 
partly  explored. 

When  white  men  first 
settled  in  Australia,  about 
a  hundred  years  ago,  they 
found  its  only  inhabitants 
to  be  a  few  tribes  of  de- 
graded, black-skinned  sav- 
ages. Of  these  but  few 
remain.  Most  of  the  pres- 
ent inhabitants  are  emi- 
grants from  the  British  Isles  or  their  descendants,  though 
there  are  some  Chinese,  Malay,  and  Hindu  laborers. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  some  of 
the  emigrants  brought  the  first  sheep  and  cattle  to  Aus- 
tralia and  started  the  industry  of  stock  raising.  Australia 
is  now  the  greatest  of  wool-producing,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  meat-exporting  countries.  Nearly  one  half  of  the 
land  in  Australia  is  devoted  to  sheep  farms  and  cattle 
ranges.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  improved  machin- 
ery in  the  moist  east  and  south  coast  region,  as  in  the 
United  States,  and  some  wheat  is  exported,  but  all  the 
crops  raised  have  only  half  the  value  of  the  wool  and 
meat. 

Gold,  silver,  coal,  copper,  and  tin  are  mined  principally 
on  the  inner  slope  of  the  eastern  highland.  Nearly  one 
fourth  of  the  world's  supply  of  gold  comes  from  Australia, 
yet  the  yearly  product  from  all  the  mines  is  but  one  fifth 
as  valuable  as  the  pastoral  and  farm  products. 

More  than  half  the  people  live  in  cities,  and  manufactur- 
ing is  an  important  industry,  but  much  cloth,  machinery, 
and  general  manufactures  are  imported.  About  three 
fourths  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain.  There 
is  an  extensive  system  of  railroads  in  the  southeast,  and 
the  continent  is  connected  with  Eurasia  by  telegraph  cable. 

Government  and  Divisions.  Australia  belongs  to  Great  Britainand 
is  divided  into  five  colonies,  which,  with  Tasmania,  form  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia.  This  federation  has  a  governor-general  appointed 
by  the  queen,  and  a  parliament  to  which  the  people  elect  members. 
Name  the  colonies  of  Australia.     Which  is  the  largest ;  the  smallest  ? 

Bound  Victoria.  Describe  its  surface.  Name  its  capi- 
tal. It  is  the  great  agricultural  and  coal-mining  colony, 
and  has  also  large  pastoral  and  manufacturing  interests. 
The  chief  exports  are  wool,  gold,  meat  products,  and  wheat. 
Melbourne,  about  as  large  as  Boston,  is  the  center  of 


many  railroad  lines,  and  the  chief  port  of  the  colony. 
Ballarat  is  in  the  gold  fields. 

Bound  New  South  Wales.  Describe  the  surface.  Name 
the  capital.  This  is  the  oldest  and  wealthiest  colony.  It 
supplies  one  half  of  the  wool  product  of  Australia,  besides 
much  wheat,  corn,  sugar  cane,  and  wine,  and.  many 
oranges.  Gold,  silver,  and  coal  are  extensively  mined. 
Sydney  is  but  little  smaller  than  Melbourne,  and  has  a 
much  larger  foreign  commerce. 

Bound  Queensland.  Describe  the  surface.  Name  the 
capital.  Nearly  half  the  surface  is  forested.  Corn  and 
sugar  cane  are  the  chief  crops.  In  the  interior  many 
sheep  are  pastured,  and  more  than  half  the  cattle  in  Aus- 
tralia. Much  gold  is  mined,  and  some  coal.  There  are 
many  Chinese  and  people  from  the  East  Indian  islands. 
The  chief  exports  are  wool,  gold,  preserved  and  frozen 
meats,  tallow,  and  hides. 

Bound  South  Australia.  Describe  its  surface  and  name 
its  capital.  It  has  rich  copper  mines,  and  raises  impoVtant 
crops  of  wheat  and  grapes.  The  chief  exports  are  wool, 
wheat,  flour,  and  copper.    Adelaide  is  the  only  large  city. 

Bound  Western  Australia.  Describe  the  surface  and 
name  the  capital.  Its  coast  regions  are  less  fertile  than  is 
the  surrounding  country  nearer  the  sources  of  the  rivers. 


In  an  Australian  gold  mine. 

Gold  forms  the  most  valuable  export,  though  much  wool 
is  also  exported.    Perth  is  the  chief  city. 

Supplemental  Work.  Draw  circles  representing  the  eastern  and 
western  hemispheres,  and  sketch  the  grand  divisions.  Model  Australia. 
Read  "  Harry  Heathcote  of  Gangoil,"  by  Anthony  Trollope. 

ISLAND  GROUPS. 

TASMANIA.  This  island  is  more  equable  in  climate  than  is  Aus- 
tralia.    Why  ?    Describe  its  surface  and  name  its  capital. 

Tasmania  is  surrounded  by  many  small  islands,  and  its 
coast  has  many  bays.  It  is  (tailed  the  "  Switzerland  of  the 
South,"  because  of  its  mountainous  surface. 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE   PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 


153 


The  plant  and  animal  forms  are  Aus- 
tralian. The  mountains  are  thickly  for- 
ested, and  the  flood  plains  are  fertile. 

Tasmania  forms  part  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia.  The  natives  dis- 
appeared rapidly  after  adopting  civiliza- 
tion. For  half  a  century  the  island  was 
used  for  convict  settlements,  but  now 
it  is  studded  with  sheep  farms.  Wool 
is  the  chief  export,  but  both  fresh  and 
preserved  fruits  are  shipped  to  Australia 
and  England.  Gold  and  tin  are  mined 
for  export,  and  coal  for  domestic  use. 

Hobart,  the  capital,  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated, and  is  a  summer  resort  for  people 
from  Australia. 

NEW  ZEALAND.  Name  the  islands  of  this 
group.  Describe  their  surface.  What  strait  sep- 
arates the  two  largest  ? 

Both  of  the  large  islands  are  moun- 
tainous, with  snow-clad  peaks  two  miles 
high.  North  Island  contains  active  vol- 
canoes, geysers,  and  hot  springs.  South  Island  is  noted 
for  its  glaciers,  glacial  lakes,  and  glacier-carved  fiords, 
resembling  those  of  Norway.  The  climate  is  mild,  moist, 
and  windy.  Why?  The  vegetation  is  peculiar,  but  re- 
sembles most  nearly  that  of  Australia.  The  mountains 
are  forest-covered,  the  hills  are  clothed  with  ferns,  and  the 
plains  with  grass.  A  large  tree  called  the  kauri  pine  fur- 
nishes fine  timber  for  export.  There  are  few  native  ani- 
mals and  none  of  the  peculiar  kinds  so  plentiful  in  Aus- 
tralia, but  New  Zealand  is  the  home  of  the  kiwi  (p.  30), 
a  singular  running  bird  without  wings.  The  natives, 
called  Maoris,  are  of  Malay  origin.  They  have  adopted 
civilized  customs  since  white  men  settled  the  islands,  but 
they  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  number. 

New  Zealand  was  settled  by  Englishmen  about  sixty 
years  ago,  and  is  now  a  British  colony.  Sheep  and  cattle 
raising,  farming,  and  the  mining  of  gold,  coal,  and  fossil 
kauri  gum  are  the  principal 
occupations.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  wool,  frozen  and 
preserved  meats,  gold,  and 
kauri  gum,  which  are  sent  to 
England.  Name  the  capital 
and  chief  cities. 

AUSTRALIAN  EAST  INDIES. 

What  is  the  largest  island  north  of 
Australia  ?  Name  the  principal  is- 
lands west  of  New  Guinea  included 
in  the  Australian  life  region  (map, 
p.  29).  Name  the  seas  between 
them.  To  whom  do  most  of  these 
islands  belong?  To  whom  does 
part  of  Timor  belong?  Among 
what  three  nations  is  New  Guinea 
divided  ?  Name  two  groups  east  of 
New  Guinea.  To  what  nation  do 
most  of  these  islands  belong  ? 


Volcano  in  New  Zealand. 


Native  Hawaiian  women. 


The  larger  islands  are  mostly  volcanic 
and  fringed  with  coral  reefs,  but  there 
are  many  coral  islands  and  atolls.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  moist.  The  products 
are  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables,  spi- 
ces, sugar,  cotton,  pearls,  and  copra,  or 
the  dried  meat  of  cocoanuts.  Copra  is 
extensively  exported  to  be  used  in  mak- 
ing cocoanut  oil. 

Scattered  through  the  western  Pacific 
are  many  clusters  of  small  volcanic  and 
coi-al  islands.  The  vegetation  consists 
of  cocoanut  palms,  bananas,  breadfruit 
trees,  a  palm  called  the  "  screw  pine," 
yams,  and  sugar  cane.  The  natives  are 
chiefly  Malays,  somewhat  civilized  by 
European  and  American  missionaries 
and  settlers. 

THE  FIJI  ISLANDS.  Where  is  this  group? 
What  groups  are  between  it  and  Australia  ?  What 
groups  are  to  the  northeast  and  to  the  south- 
east ?    To  whom  do  the  Fiji  Islands  belong  ? 

These  are  volcanic  islands,  containing 
sugar  plantations  and  exporting  sugar,  fruits,  and  copra  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

SAMOA  ISLANDS.  What  islands  lie  southeast  of  the  Samoa  Is- 
lands ?    With  the  scale  of  miles  measure  their  distance  from  Sydney. 

The  Samoa  Islands  are  mountainous,  and  are  occasionally 
visited  by  earthquakes.  They  are  well  watered,  well  for- 
ested, and  fertile,  and  export  copra.  The  natives  are  partly 
civilized.  Savaii  and  Upolu  belong  to  Germany.  Tutuila 
and  several  smaller  islands  are  owned  by  the  United  States. 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  Name  the  chief  islands  of  this  group. 
What  is  their  capital  ? 

These  islands  are  volcanic.  They  lie  near  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer  and  about  one  third  of  the  distance  from  America 
to  Asia;  locate  them  on  the  map,  p.  16.  The  island  of 
Hawaii  is  about  the  size  of  Connecticut.      It  contains 

The  natives  are  civilized,  and 
there  are  many  Chinese  and 
Japanese  laborers.  The  Ha- 
waiian Islands  were  annexed 
to  the  United  States  in  1898, 
and  later  established  as  the 
Territory  of  Hawaii.  Much 
sugar  is  produced  and  sent 
to  San  Francisco. 

Honolulu  is  celebrated  for 
its  delightful  climate.  It  is 
an  important  coaling  station 
for  Arctic  whalers,  war  ships, 
and  merchant  vessels. 

SupplementalWork.  Read"The 
Western  Pacific,"  by  H.  H.  Romilly ; 
"  In  Stevenson's  Samoa,"  by  Marie 
Fraser ;  "  Boy  Travellers  in  Austral- 
asia," by  Knox ;  or  "  Ran  Away  from 
the  Dutch,"  by  M.  T.  H.  Perelaer. 


two  large  active  volcanoes. 


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COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS. 

1         [  Great  Brittin        |         |  Portugal  I  1 M7 

BBS  France  S  sPlia  1  I  Denmark 

I         I  Germany  I         I  Netherlands  I  I  United  States 

Only  the  navigable  portions  of  rivers  are  shown. 

Steamship  Routes.  Figures  Indicate  distances  in  geographical 


or  nautical  miles  between  places  marked  thus  : 
Railroads  and  telegraph  lines. 


.  Submarine  cables  and  telegraph  lines'. 


I— 


—  Caravan  Routes. 
■  i         Canals. 


A     N 


^JKFKGUELEN 
LAND 


$t         90        from 


Greenwich  69 


Longitude 


East         30  from 


Greenwich     '        60 


lit  MATTHEWS  N0*THf 


CORRELATIONS  AND  COMPARISONS. 


Physical  Features.  What  is  the  earth's  size ;  shape ;  movements  ? 
What  are  the  effects  of  these  movements  on  the  distribution  of  light ; 
heat  ?  On  the  circulation  of  the  air ;  of  the  ocean  ?  On  the  tides  ? 
Compare  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres  in  their  proportions  of 
laud  and  water ;  in  the  circulation  of  air ;  the  distribution  of  heat. 

Make  a  list  of  the  world's  great  lowlands,  and  tell  of  each  its  climate, 
products,  the  nations  which  inhabit  it.  Make  a  list  of  the  world's  great 
plateaus,  and  tell  of  each  its  general  elevation,  climate,  and  products,  and 
the  nations  which  occupy  it.  Make  a  list  of  the  world's  great  mountain 
systems  and  compare  them  in  height;  continuity;  the  number  and 
height  of  their  mountain  peaks. 

Indicate  on  the  map  evidences  of  movements  of  the  earth's  crust; 
of  water  erosion ;  of  deposition  ;  of  the  work  of  winds  on  surface  forms. 
Mention  some  places  where  cataracts  occur.  Where  are  there  conti- 
nental glaciers;  valley  glaciers;  evidences  of  former  glaciers? 

Name  the  chief  rivers  draining  the  Atlantic-Arctic  slope  in  Eurasia ; 
North  America ;  Africa  ;  South  America.  Compare  these  rivers  of  Eura- 
sia with  those  of  Africa  in  size  of  basin,  volume  of  water,  usefulness. 
Compare  those  of  Eurasia  with  those  of  North  America  ;  those  of  South 
America  with  those  of  North  America;  those  of  Africa  with  those  of 
South  America.  Name  the  chief  rivers  draining  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Ocean  slope  in  Africa ;  Eurasia ;  Australia :  America.  Compare  these 
river  systems  of  North  America  with  those  of  Africa;  those  of  North 
America  with  those  of  Eurasia ;  those  of  Eurasia  with  those  of  Africa ; 
those  of  Australia  with  the  others.  Make  a  list  of  the  worlds  great  lake 
regions.  Tell  of  each  the  names,  causes,  outlets,  and  uses  of  the  chief  lakes. 

Name  the  world's  great  seas  and  bays ;  important  isthmuses ;  straits ; 
peninsulas ;  islands.  Tell  of  each  island  or  island  group  what  you  know 
of  its  origin,  climate,  and  surface. 

Climate.  Where  are  the  summers  temperate  and  the  winters  cold? 
Compare  these  regions  in  latitude  and  altitude.  What  plants  and  ani- 
mals live  there  ?  What  races  of  men  ?  How  dense  is  the  population  ? 
Where  are  the  summers  hot  and  the  winters  cold  ?  Where  are  the  sum- 
mers hot  and  the  winters  temperate  ?  Where  is  the  entire  year  tem- 
perate ?  In  what  heat  belts  do  the  most  advanced  nations  live  in  South 
America;  in  North  America;  in  Eurasia;  in  Africa;  in  Australia? 

Describe  and  account  for  the  trade  winds ;  equatorial  calms ;  tropical 
calms ;  prevailing  westerly  winds ;  monsoons.  Why  do  these  belts  move 
northward  and  southward  during  the  year  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  this 
movement  ?    Account  for  cyclones. 

Make  a  list  of  the  regions  of  heavy  rainfall,  and  try  to  account  for  the 
existence  of  each.  Locate  the  largest  regions  of  moderately  heavy  rain. 
Compare  the  positions  of  the  areas  of  interior  drainage  in  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres ;  in  the  two  northern  grand  divisions ;  in  the 
three  southern  grand  divisions.  Compare  the  positions  of  the  rainless 
regions  of  the  world ;  of  the  desert  regions.  Compare  the  maps  on  pp. 
26  and  28 ;  what  are  the  chief  farming  regions  of  the  world  ?  What 
great  regions  suited  by  climate  for  farming  are  still  forest-covered? 
Where  are  there  great  herding  regions?    Compare  them  in  climate. 

Life.  Compare  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres  in  the  pe- 
culiarity of  their  life  forms.  Name  the  great  life  regions.  In  which  are 
the  life  forms  most  peculiar  ?  Which  two  regions  are  most  nearly  alike 
in  life  forms  ?  Which  region  is  nearly  identical  with  a  continent  ?  What 
regions  cover  parts  of  two  grand  divisions ;  only  part  of  a  grand  divi- 
sion ?  Locate  and  account  for  three  transitional  regions.  Which  grand 
division  contains  forms  belonging  to  three  different  regions  ?  Describe  the 
life  forms  of  South  America ;  North  America ;  Eurasia ;  Africa,  Australia. 

Man.  Tell  about  the  stages  of  man's  progress.  Where  is  it  thought 
that  civilization  first  existed  ?  Tell  of  its  spread  over  Asia,  and  its  pres- 
ent condition  there.  Tell  of  its  spread  over  Europe,  North  America, 
South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia  ;  and  describe  its  condition  in  each 
of  these  grand  divisions.  What  parts  of  the  world  are  not  yet  explored ; 
not  yet  civilized  ? 

Is  population  denser  in  the  eastern  or  in  the  western  hemisphere ;  in 
the  northern  or  in  the  southern  ?  In  what  grand  division  is  it  densest ;  least 
dense  ?  Explain  the  locations  of  the  most  densely  peopled  regions  of 
South  America ;  North  America ;  Africa ;  Australia ;  Eurasia.    In  what 


regions  is  the  sparseness  of  the  population  due  to  cold ;  to  little  moisture 
and  vegetation ;  to  much  moisture  and  vegetation  ? 

On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  show  the  distribution  of  the  chief  re- 
ligious beliefs,  and  compare  these  regions  in  civilization  and  wealth. 

Make  a  list  of  the  races  of  man.  Tell  of  each  where  it  is  found ;  its 
advancement ;  the  chief  nations  representing  it. 

Agriculture  and  Herding.  What  are  the  world's  great  wheat-pro- 
ducing regions  ?  In  what  respects  are  they  similar  ?  What  regions  pro- 
duce rice ;  corn ;  tea ;  cotton  ;  flax  ?  Name  some  fruits  which  enter  into 
the  world's  trade,  and  tell  where  each  is  grown.  Where  are  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  and  fowls  raised  ?  Make  a  list  of  other  domestic  food  animals ; 
where  are  they  raised  ?  Name  some  regions  which  export  food.  Why  ? 
Name  some  which  import  food.  Why?  What  do  they  exchange  for 
the  imported  food? 

Fishing.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  best  ocean  fishing  grounds. 
What  kind  of  fish  are  caught  in  each  ?  Name  waters  famous  for  oysters ; 
salmon;  sponges;  pearls;  coral. 

Lumbering.  Locate  some  of  the  world's  great  lumbering  regions. 
Make  a  list  of  useful  forest  produces ;  tell  where  each  is  obtained,  and 
how  it  is  used. 

Mining.  Make  a  list  of  mineral  prpducts  produced  by  the  alteration 
of  vegetable  or  animal  remains.  How  was  coal  formed  ?  How  is  iPmined  ? 
Locate  the  world's  great  coal- mining  regions ;  regions  which  export  coal ; 
regions  which  import  it.  Where  are  the  world's  great  petroleum  regions  ? 
What  mineral  ranks  next  to  coal  in  importance  ?  How  is  it  mined  ?  Where 
is  it  produced ;  manufactured  ?  Why  is  it  important  to  find  coal  and  iron 
near  each  other  ?  When  both  are  not  found  in  the  same  region,  which  is 
usually  transported  to  the  other?  Name  some  cities  which  manufacture 
iron  and  steel.  Where  do  gold  and  silver  occur  ?  How  were  they  de- 
posited ?  How  are  they  mined  ?  Where  are  they,  found  ?  Make  a  list  of 
other  mineral  products,  and  tell  about  their  occurrence ,  mining,  and  uses. 

Manufacture.  In  what  two  ways  may  manufacture  be  done?  Where 
do  primitive  methods  prevail?  Where  do  modern  methods  prevail? 
Compare  these  regions  with  those  of  dense  population ;  of  iron  and  coal 
production.  Make  a  list  of  manufactured  products ;  tell  in  what  regions 
each  is  made,  and  name  some  cities  famous  for  it. 

Commerce.  Define  commerce;  foreign  commerce;  domestic  com- 
merce. Where  are  railroads  numerous ;  few  ?  Give  instances  of  the  in- 
fluence of  surface  forms  upon  railroad  routes ;  of  great  natural  obstacles 
overcome  in  building  railroads.  For  what  purposes  are  canals  better 
than  railways  ?  Locate  some  canals  and  show  why  they  are  useful.  Tell 
what  you  can  of  the  methods  of  using  canals ;  of  improving  rivers ;  har- 
bors. How  do  governments  aid  commerce  in  their  own  countries ;  in 
foreign  countries?  Illustrate  the  comfort  and  convenience  gained  by 
commerce ;  the  discomfort  and  distress  occasioned  by  its  absence. 

From  the  map  on  pp.  154,  155,  tell  through  what  places  a  message 
might  pass  if  sent  by  telegraph  and  cable  from  New  Zealand  to  San 
Francisco ;  from  Valparaiso  to  Yokohama ;  from  Cape  Town  to  St. 
Petersburg. 

Countries.  Make  a  list  of  the  divisions  and  colonial  possessions  of 
the  British  Empire.  Tell  of  each  its  resources  and  products ;  its  history ; 
what  it  contributes  to  and  receives  from  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Name 
and  describe  the  world's  other  great  empires.  Make  lists  of  the  world's 
constitutional  and  absolute  monarchies.  Compare  the  two  lists  in  civiliz- 
ation, wealth,  and  power.  Tell  of  each  country  its  history,  people,  and 
contributions  to  the  world's  trade.  Make  a  list  of  the  colonial  possessions 
of  France ;  Germany ;  the  Netherlands ;  Portugal. 

Cities.  From  the  tables  on  pp.  158-159,  make  a  list  of  the  twenty 
most  populous  cities  of  the  world.  Tell  about  each  its  position,  general 
appearance,  importance,  and  industries ;  the  kind  of  country  surrounding 
it ;  its  trade  facilities ;  and  something  of  its  history  and  inhabitants.  What 
route  might  you  follow,  and  what  goods  might  you  carry  each  way  in  mak- 
ing trips  between  Halifax  and  Madras ;  Odessa  and  Vera  Cruz  ;  Adelaide 
and  Valparaiso ;  San  Francisco  and  Venice  ;  Batum  and  Zanzibar ;  Du- 
luth  and  Dublin ;  Cape  Town  and  Amsterdam ;  Havana  and  Glasgow  ? 


156 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


SUMMARY. 

Length  of  earth's  axis  (miles)  7,900 

Equatorial  diameter        "  7,926 

Length  of  equator            "  24,900 

Earth's  Surface  (sq.  mi.)  196,900,000 

Pacific  Ocean    (sq.  miles)  71,000,000 

Atlantic  Ocean     "      "  34,000,000 

Indian  Ocean        "      "  28,000,000 

Antarctic  Ocean  "      "  7,500,000 

Arctic  Ocean        "      "  4,000,000 

The  Sea             "      "  144,500,000 

Area  in 

8q.  Miles.  Population. 

North  America    9,394,806  106,174,000 

South  America    6,856,223  38,391,000 

Europe 3,857,504  397,003,000 

Asia 17,055,665  910,544,000 

Africa     11,514,825  155,653,000 

Australia,  etc.     3,456,444  6,258,000 

S.  Polar  Lauds       253,678       

The  Land      52,389,145  1,614,023,000 

North  America. 

Greenland  . . .        837,776  12,000 

Iceland  40,426  78,000 

Nova  Scotia..         20,907  460,000 

N.  Brunswick.         27,960  331,000 

Prince  Edw.  I.           2,133  103,000 

§uebee  .• 344,450  1,649,000 

ntario 223,001  2,183,000 

Manitoba      . .          65,988  255,000 

Brit.Columbia        384,996  179,000 

Districts 2,518,284  212,000 

Part  Gt.  Lakes         27,094  

Dom.ofCanada  3,614,813  5,372,000 

Newfoundland     \  42,732  217,000 

East  Labrador        120,005  4,000 

Brit.  America    3,777,550  5,593,000 

French  Is 91  7,000 

U.S. (main body)  3,090,777  75,995,000 

Alaska 590,884  64,000 

Mexico 751,584  13,546,000 

Guatemala  . . .         48,303  1,647,000 

Honduras 46,264  588,000 

Salvador 8,135  1,007,000 

Nicaragua  . . .          47,859  500,000 

Costa  Rica  . . .          20,877  313,000 

Panama 31,571  285,000 

Belize   8,292  38,000 

CentralAmerica    211,301  4,373,000 

Cuba  Group  . .        H5,884  1,573,000 

Haiti,  Rep.  of         11,072  1,295,000 

Santo  Domingo        18,757  610,000 

Jamaica  4,193  770,000 

Porto  Rico  . . .            3,531  953,000 

Bahama  Is 5,612  54,000 

Other  Islands.            5,349  1,228,000 

West  Indies...          94,393  6^83,000 

Bermuda  Is...                19  18,000 

South  America. 

Colombia 432,966  3,715,000 

Venezuela  . . .        403,067  2,445,000 

Guiana(Brit.).          88,652  294,000 

"     (Dutch)         49,848  69,000 

"     (Fr.)  ..          30,465  33,000 

Brazil   3,228,452  14,334,000 

Paraguay  ....          97,726  630,000 

Uruguay 68,999  965,000 

Argentina....     1,077,032  4.894,000 

Chile 299,626  3, 147. 000 

Bolivia   515,156  1,853,000 

Peru 439,014  4,610,000 

Ecuador 118,646  1,400,000 

Falk.  Is.,  etc. .           6,574  2,000 

Europe. 

England 50,841  31,070.000 

Wales 7,468  1,456,000 

Scotland 30,406  4,472,000 

Ireland 32,353  4,459,000 

Man  and  Chan.  Is.        303  151,000 

Gt.  Brit.  &  It.      1S1,371  41,608,000 

Ger.  Empire..        210,229  56,367,000 

Luxemburg...           1.0"°  237,000 


Netherlands . . 
Switzerland  . . 

Austi-ia 

Hungary 

Bosnia,  etc.  . . 
Liechtenstein. 
Aus.-Hungary 

Norway    

Sweden 

Denmark   

Faroe  Islands. 


Europe  {continued) 

Area  in 
8q.  Miles. 

12,742 
15,964 

115,910 

125,613 

19,734 

61 

261,318 

125.653 
173,974 

14,803 
515 


11,374 


Belgium  .    . . 

France 207,204 

Monaco 

Andorra 

Spain 

Gibraltar 


175 
191,994 

2 


Population. 
5,263,000 
3,325,000 

26,151,000 

19,255,000 

1,591.000 

10,000 

47,007,000 

2,240,000 
5,175,000 

2,450,000 
15,000 

6,694,000 

38,962,000 

15,000 

6,000 

18,260,000 

57,000 

5,022,000 
257,000 
151,000 

28,154,000 

3,530,000 

792,000 

32,476,000 

11,000 

188,000 

2,434,000 

6,086,000 

3,744,000 

304,000 

12,000 

228,000 

2,536,000 

5,913,000 

Russia  (includ. 

Pol.&Fiuland)    1,976,671      106,227,000 
Caucasia  (north 
of  mountains) 
Sea  of  Azof  . . 
Nova  Zembla  . 
Russia  in  Eur, 


Portugal  . . . 

Azores 

Madeira  Is. . 


34,508 
922 
315 


91,446 
9,938 
9,296 


Italy  Proper. . 

Sicily 

Sardinia  . 

Italy 110,680 

San  Marino. . . 

Malta 

Greece 

Turkey  in  Eur. 

Bulgaria 

Crete 

Thasos  (Eg'pt) 
Montenegro  . . 

Servia    

Roumania .... 


24 

125 

24,974 

64,602 

37,322 

3,328 

152 

3,506 

18,651 

50,589 


86,661 
14,520 
35.445 

2,113,297 


3,733,000 


109,960,000 


Spitzbergen, 
Franz  Josef  L'd, 
and  Jan  Mayen 


46,180 


Africa. 

Morocco 313,642 

257,578 
44,906 
399,012 
361,134 
758,949 

Sahara 2,386,352 


Algeria 

Tunis 

Tripoli 

Egypt  Proper. 
Egyptian  Sudan 


Abyssinia . 

Eritrea   

Somaliland,  etc. 
British  East  Af . 

Senegal 

French  Sudan. 
French  Guinea 
Ivory  Coast. . . 
Dahomey  .... 
French  Kongo 

Gambia 

Sierra  Leone. . 
Gold  Coast  . . . 

Nigeria 

Lagos 

Port.  Guinea. . 

Liberia 

Togoland 

Kamerun 

Kongo  State . . 

Angola 

Port.  East  Af. . 
Ger.  East  Af . . 
Ger.  S.  W.  Af. 
Transvaal  Col. 
Orange  R.  Col. 
Cape  Colony. . 
Other  Br.S.Af. 
Madagascar. . . 
Is.  of  Ind.  Ocean 
Canary  Islands 
Cape  Verde  Is. 
So.  Atlantic  Is. 


196,147 

88,500 
396,120 
328,000 

80,000 
720,000 

95,000 
125,000 

60,000 

425,000 

2,769 

30,000 

40,000 
347,000 

22,000 
4,440 

35,000 

33,000 
191,130 
865,383 
517,183 
309,653 
368,826 
322,446 
120,005 

50,465 

298,139 

684,384 

229,328 

3,777 

2,944 

1,487 

126 


5,000,000 
4,739,000 
L»00,000 
1,300,000 
9,735,000 
3,500,000 
2,500,000 
3,500,000 
450,000 
1,100,000 
8,000,000 
1,800,000 
4,000,000 
2,200,000 
2,000,000 

i,oon,ooo 

10,000,000 

91,000 

1,077,000 

1,500,000 

25,000,000 

1,500,000 

820,000 

2,060,000 

900,000 

3,500,000 

30,000,000 

4,119,000 

3,120,000 

8,000,000 

200,000 

1,094,000 

208,000 

2,433,000 

3,643,000 

2,505,000 

646,000 

359,000 

148,000 

6,000 


Asia. 

Area  in 
8q.  Miles. 

Arctic  Islands  14,904 

Siberia 4,914,359 

Kirghiz  Steppe  706, 253 
Russian  Turk.  641,578 
Aral&Caspian  195,551 
Transcaucasia  95,801 
Khiva,  Rus.  dep'cy  23,167 
Bokhara      "  79,154 

Kwangtung  .  .  1,224 

Russia  in  Asia    6, 671, 991 

Isl. of  Cyprus.  3,584 

Turkey  in  Asia  683,155 
Sinai  Pen.  (Eg'pt)    22,781 

Arabia 879,984 

Oman  74,842 

Aden,  etc.  . . .  15,870 

Persia 635,163 

Afghanistan  .  240,937 

India  Proper.  1,450,734 

Burma  264,239 

Baluchistan..  141,628 

Ceylon,  etc...  25,449 

Straits  Settl's.  35,571 

Brit.  India,  etc.  1J917.621 


Population. 


5,727,000 
2,461,000 
5,261,000 


Nepal,  Bhutan 
Port.  India  . . 

French  India. 

Tonkin 

Anam 

Laos 

Cochin  China. 
Cambodia .... 
Kwangchau . 


72,590 
1,413 

197 
46,025 
52,126 
98,460 
21,970 
37,415 

270 


Fr.Indo-China,etc.256,463 


5,516.000 
500,000 

1,500,000 

250,000 

21,215,000 

237,000 

17,545,000 

25,000 

950,000 

1,500,000 

252,000 

9,500,000 

4,550,000 

283,871,000 

10,491,000 

742,000 

3,608,000 

1,452,000 

300,164,000 

4,020,000 
572,000 

273,000 

7,037,000 

6,124,000 

605,000 

2,969,000 

1,103,000 

60,000 

18,171,000 


United  States,  1900. 


Siam  

China  Proper. 
Manchuria . .  . 
Mongolia  .... 
Chinese  Turk. 
Tibet . 


244,798  5,000,000 


1,496,972 

362,671 

1,076,337 

550,601 

814,319 

Chinese  Empire  4,300,900 


Hongkong  and 

Weihaiwei. . 

Kiauchau    . . . 

Macao  ....... 

Korea. 

Japanese  Empire 

Luzon  Group. 

Visayas 

Mindanao  . . . 
Palawan  Group 
Sulu Islands.  . 
Philippine  Is. . 

Sumatra  Group 
Java  Group  . . 
Borneo  Group 
Celebes  Group 
Moluccas,  etc. 
As.  East  Indies 


687 

194 

4 

84,251 

161,135 

47,968 

21,671 

37,827 

5,453 

1,491 

114,410 

185,039 

50,777 

289,948 

71,784 

75,344 

787,302 


407,337,000 
8,500,000 
2,580,000 
1,200,000 
6,430,000 

426,047,000 

508,000 

60,000 

79,000 

9,670,000 

46,521,000 

3,818,000 

2,829,000 

298,000 

29,000 

3,000 

6,977,000 

3,277,000 
28,746,000 
1,933,000 
1,743,000 
1,282,000 
43,958,000 


Australia,  etc. 


Victoria 

New  S.  Wales . 
Queensland  .  . 
South  Australia 
Western  Austr'l'a  975,920 

Tasmania 26,215 

Com. of  Australia  2,972,865 

New  Zealand  Gr.    104,663 
New  Guinea  Gr. 
Bismarck  Arch. 
Solomon  Is.  . . 
New  Hebrides 
New  Caledonia,  etc. 
Fiji  Islands . . . 
Samoa  Islands 

Hawaii 

Maui  and  Lanai 
Kahoolawe  . . . 

Molokai 

Oahu..' 

Kaui  and  Niihau 
Hawaiian  Is. . . 


.87,884 
310,660 
668,497 
903,689 


311,032 
18,186 
13,475 
5,107 
7,634 
8,046 
1,076 

4,015 
863 


1,201,000 
1,359,000 
503,000 
363,000 
184,000 
173,000 
3,783,000 

816,000 

700,000 

190,000 

200,000 

50,000 

51,000 

118,000 

39,000 

47,000 
25,500 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California  ... 

Colorado    .... 

Connecticut  . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  .... 

Louisiana  .... 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan ' 

Minnesota. . . . 

Mississippi  .    . 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hamp. . . 

New  Jersey . . . 

New  York  .... 

N.  Carolina. . . 

N.  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode  Island. . 

S.Carolina 

S.  Dakota.   . . 

Tennessee . . . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  . . 

W.  Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin. . . ^ 

Wyoming. . 

Delaware  Bay 

Lower  New 
York  Bay 
and  Raritan 
Bay 

Part  of  the 
Great  Lakes 

Total  States. 


Area  in 

Sq.  Miles. 

52,250 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 
58,680 
59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
36,350 
56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 

8,315 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 
69,415 
146,080 
77,510 
110,700 

9,305 

7,815 
49,170 
52.250 
70,795 
41,060 
96,030 
45,215 

1,250 
30,570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 

9,565 
42,450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 
97,890 
620 


100 

65,177 

2,784,677 


Population. 

1,828,697 
1,311,564 
1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184,735 

528,542 
2,216,331 

161,772 
4,821,550 
2,516,462 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,381,625 

694,466 
1,188,044 
2,805,346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 
1,551,270 
3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 
1,883,669 
7,268,894 
1,893,810 

319,146 
4,157,545 

413.536 
6,302,115 

428,556 
1,340,316 

401,570 
2,020,616 
3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 
1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 


74,607,225 


Territories  (Main  Body). 


Small  Pacific  Is. 


261 
600 
641 
6,449 
7,911 


2,500 

58,500 

20,500 

154,000 

157.000 


Arizona 

Dist.  of  Col... 

Indian  Ter 

New  Mexico. . 
Oklahoma 


Total  Territories    306,100         1,387,350 
Total  main  body  3,090,777       75,994,575 


113,020 

122.931 

70 

278,718 

31,400 

392,060 

122,580 

195,310 

39,030 

398,331 

Outlying  Territory,  etc. 

Ter.  of  Alaska.  590,884 

Ter.  of  Hawaii  6,449 

Porto  Rico 3,531 

Philippines  ('03)  114,410 


Tutuila,  etc.. 

Guam 

Wake 

Persons  in  the 
military  and 
naval  service 
of  the  United 
States  sta- 
tioned abroad 


77 
150 
1 


63,592 
154,001 
953,243 
6,976,574 
6,100 
9,000 


91,219 


Total  outlying .        715,501         8,263,729 
Grand  Total. .    3 £06,279       84,248,804 


157 


POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1900. 


Akron,  Ohio 42,728 

Alameda,  Cal 16,464 

Albany,  N.  Y 94,151 

Albuquerque,  N.  M 6,238 

Alexandria,  Va 14,528 

Allegheny,  Pa.    .#.  31  . .     •  129,896 

Allentown,  Pa 35,416 

Alpena,  Mich 11,802 

Altoona,  Pa 38,973 

Amsterdam.  N.Y 20,929 

Anaconda,  Mont 9,453 

Anderson,  Ind 20,178 

Annapolis,  Md 8,525 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.   ...  14,509 

Anniston,  Ala 9,695 

Ansonia,  Conn 12,681 

Appleton,  Wis 15,085 

Ardmore,  Ind.  Ter 5,681 

Asheville,  N.  C. 14,694 

Ashland,  Wis 13,074 

Astoria,  Ore 8,381 

Atchison,  Kan 15,722 

Athens,  Ga 10,245 

Atlanta,  Ga '89,872 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 27,838 

Auburn,  Me -12,951 

Auburn,  N.  Y 30,345 

Augusta,  Ga 39,441 

Augusta,  Me 11,683 

Aurora,  111 24,147 

Austin,  Tex 22,258 

Baltimore,  Md.   *  -608,957 

Bangor,  Me TT  21,850 

Barre,  Vt 8,448 

Bath,  Me 10,477 

Baton  Rouge,  La 11,269 

Battle  Creek,  Mich 18,563 

Bay  City,  Mich 27.628 

Bayonne,  N.  J 32,722 

Belleville,  111 17,484 

Berkeley,  Cal 13,214 

Beverly,  Mass 13,884 

Biddeford,  Me 16,145 

Binghamton,  N.  Y : .  39,647 

Birmingham,  Ala 38,415 

Bismarck,  N.  D 3,319 

Bloomington,  111 23,286 

Bo;se,  Ida.  .  .^n,    5.957 

Boston,  Mass .K  560,892 

Bridgeport,  Conn 70,996 

Brockton,  Mass 40,063 

Buffalo,  N.  Y f  ^2,387 

Burlington,  Iowa 23,201 

Burlington,  Vt. 18,640 

Butte,  Mont. 30,470 

Cambridge,  Mass 91.886 

Camden,  N.  J 75,935 

Canton,  Ohio  30,667 

Carson  City,  Nev 2,100 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 25,656 

Charleston,  S.  C.   .     55,807 

Charleston,  W.  Va 11,099 

Charlotte,  N.  C 18,091* 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 30,154 

Chelsea,  Mass 34,072 

Chester,  Pa 33,988 

Cheyenne,  Wyo v14,087 


Chicago,  111. ...... f^  .'.'vl>«>8!575 

Chicopee,  Mass.   

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Clinton,  Iowa 

Cohoes,  N.Y 

Colorado  Springs,  Col.  . 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Columbus,  Ga. 

Columbus,  Ohio  

Concord,  N.  H 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. . . 

Covington,  Ky 

Cripple  Creek,  Col 

Cumberland,  Md 

Dallas,  Tex 

Danbury,  Conn 

Danville,  Va 

Davenport,  Iowa 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Decatur,  111 

Denver,  Col 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  

Detroit,  Mich 

Dover,  Del 

Dover,  N.  H. . .   

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn . 

Easton,  Pa.   

East  St.  Louis,  111 

153 


19,167 

325,902 
*.  881,768 
22,698 
23.910 
21,085 
21,108 
17,614 

125,560 
19,632 
25,802 
42,938 
10,147 
17,128 
42,638 
16,537 
16,520 
35,254 
85,333 
20,754 

133,859 
62,139 

285,704 
3,329 
13,207 
36,297 
52,969 
25,238 
29,655 


Eau  Claire,  Wis 17,517 

Elgin,  111. 22,433 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 52,130 

Elmira,  N.  Y 35,672 

El  Paso,  Tex 15,906 

Erie,  Pa 52,733 

Evanston,  111 ...  19,259 

Evansville,  Ind 59,007 

Everett,  Mass 24,336 

Everett,  Wash 7,838 

Fall  River,  Mass 104,863 

Fargo,  N.D 9,589 

Findlay,  Ohio 17,613 

Fitchburg,  Mass 31,531 

Flint,  Mich 13.103 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis 15,110 

Fort  Scott,  Kan 10,322 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 41,587 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 45,115 

Fort  Worth,  Tex .26,688 

Frankfort,  Ky 9,487 

Frederick,  Md 9,296 

Fresno,  Cal 12,470 

Galesburg,  111 18,607 

Galveston,  Tex 3?, 789 

Glens  Falls,  N.Y 12,613 

Gloucester,  Mass 26,121 

Gloversville,  N.Y 18,349 

Grand  Forks,  N.  D 7,652 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 87,565 

Great  Falls,  Mont;   14,930 

Green  Bay,  Wis 18,684 

Greensboro,  N.  C 10,035 

Greenville,  Miss 7,642 

Greenville,  S.  C 11,860 

Guthrie,  Okla 10,006 

Hagerstown,  Md 13,591 

Hamilton,  Ohio 23,914 

Hannibal,  Mo 12,780 

Harrisburg,  Pa 50,167 

Hartford,  Conn. 79,850 

Haverhill,  Mass. ..." 37,175 

Helena,  Mont 10,770 

Henderson,  Kv 10,272 

Hoboken,  N.  J 59,364 

Holyoke,  Mass 45,712 

Honolulu,  Hawaii   39,306 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 9,973 

Houston,  Tex 44.633 

Huntington,  W.  Va 11,923 

Huntsville,  Ala '. . . .  8,068 

IndiUnapolis,  Ind ,  169,164 

Ishpeming,  Mich 13,255 

Ithaca,  N.Y 13,136 

Jackson,  Mich 25,180 

Jackson,  Miss 7,816 

Jackson,  Tenn 14,511 

Jacksonville,  Fla 28,429 

Jamestown,  N.  Y 22,892 

Janesville,  Wis 13,185 

Jefferson  City,  Mo. 9,664 

Jersey  City,  N.  J * .  206,433 

Johnstown,  Pa 35^36 

Joliet,  111 29,353 

Joplin,  Mo 26,023 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 24,404 

Kansas  City,  Kan 51,418 

Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752 

Keene,  N.  H 9,165 

Keokuk,  Iowa 14,641 

Key  West,  Fla 1T;114 

Kingston,  N.  Y 24,535 

Knoxville,  Tenn -32,637 

La  Crosse,  Wis 28,895 

Lafayette,  Ind 18,116 

Lancaster,  Pa 41,459 

Lansing,  Mich 16,485 

Laramie,  Wyo 8,207 

Laredo,  Tex. 13,429 

Las  Vegas,  N.  M 3,552 

Lawrence,  Kan 10,862 

Lawrence,  Mass 62,559 

Leadville,  Col 12,445 

Leavenworth,  Kan 20,735 

Lebanon,  Pa 17,628 

Lewiston,  Me 23,761 

Lexington,  Ky 26,369 

Lima,  Ohio 21.723 

Lincoln,  Neb 40,169 

Little  Rock,  Ark 3$,307 

Lockport,  N.  Y 16,581 

Logan,  Utah 5,451 

Logansport,  Ind '  16,204 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 102,479 

Louisville,  Ky >*  204,731 

Lowell,  Mass 94,969 

Lynchburg,  Va 18,891 


Lynn,  Mass 68,513 

Macon,  Ga 23,272 

McKeesport,  Pa 34,227 

Madison,  Wis 19,164 

Maiden,  Mass 33,664 

Manchester,  N.  H.  ,  .    56,987 

Manistee,  Mich 14,260 

Mankato,  Minn 10,599 

Mansfield,  Ohio 17,640 

Marinette,  Wis 16.195 

Marion,  Ind 17,337 

Marlboro,  Mass 13,609 

Marquette,  Mich 10,058 

Medford,  Mass 18,244 

Melrose,  Mass 12,962 

Menominee,  Mich. 12,818 

Memphis,  Tenn.   .V. 1D2.320 

Meriden,  Conn 24,296 

Meridian,  Miss 14,050 

Middletown,  N.  Y 14,522 

Milwaukee,  Wis. j  285,315 

Minneapolis,  Minn £  202,718 

Mobile,  Ala 38,469 

Montgomery,  Ala 30,346 

Montpelier,  Vt. 6,266 

Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y 21.228 

Muneie,  Ind 20,942 

Muskegon,  Mich 20,818 

Nashua,  N.  H 23,898 

Nashville,  Tenn 80,865 

Natchez,  Miss 12,210 

New  Albany,  Ind 20,628 

Newark,  N.  J 246,070 

Newark,  Ohio 18,157 

New  Bedford,  Mass 62,442 

Newbern,  N.  C 9,090 

New  Britain,  Conn 25,998 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J 20,006 

Newburgh,  N.  Y 24,943 

Newburyport,  Mass 14,478 

Newcastle,  Pa 28,339 

New  Haven,  Conn. 108,027 

New  London,  Conn 17,548 

New  Orleans,  La 287,104 

Newport,  Ky 28,301 

Newport,  R.  1 22,034 

Newport  News,  Va 19,635 

New  Rochelle,  N.  Y 14,720 

Newton,  Mass 33,587 

New  York,  N.Y.  . .  i . .  «-».  3|437,202 

Manhattan  Borough 1,850,093 

Brooklyn          " 1,166,582 

Bronx               "         200,507 

Queens             "        152,999 

Richmond        "        67,021 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y 19,457 

Nome,  Alaska 12,488 

Norfolk,  Va 46,624 

Norristown,  Pa 22,265 

NortK  Adams,  Mass 24,200 

Northampton,  Mass. 18,643 

Norwich,  Conn 17,251 

Oakland,  Cal 66,960 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y 12,633 

Ogden,  Utah 16,313 

Oklahoma,  Okla 10,037 

Olympia,  Wash 3,863 

Omaha,  Neb 102,555 

Orange,  N.  J. 24,141 

Oshkosh,  Wis 28,284 

Oswego,  N.  Y 22,199 

Ottumwa,  Iowa 18,197 

Owensboro,  Ky 13,189 

Paducah,  Ky 19,446 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va 11,703 

Passaic,  N.  J 27,777 

Paterson,  N.  J 105,171 

Pawtucket,  R.  1 39,231 

Pensacola,  Fla 17.747 

Peoria,  111.    .. 56,100 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J 17,699 

Petersburg,  Va 21,810 

Philadelphia,  Pa. . . .  !V  . .  .^  1,2^)3,697 

Phoenix,  Ariz 5,544 

Pierre,  S.  D 2,306 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark 11,496 

Pittsburg,  Pa |21,616 

Pittsfield,  Mass 21,766 

Plainfield,  N.  J 15,369 

Port  Huron,  Mich 19, 158 

Portland,  Me.    ,V 50,145 

Portland,  Ore 90,426 

Portsmouth,  N.  H 10,637 

Portsmouth,  Ohio 17,870 

Portsmouth,  Va 17,427 

Pottsville,  Pa 15,710 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y 24,029 


Providence,  R.  1 175,597 

Provo  City,  Utah 6,185 

Pueblo,  Col 28,157 

Quincy,  111 36,252 

Quincy,  Mass 23,899 

Racine,  Wis 29,102 

Raleigh,  N.  C 13,643 

Reading,  Pa 78,961 

Reno,  Nev 4,500 

Richmond,  Ind 18,226 

Richmond,  Va 85,050 

Roanoke,  Va 21,495 

Rochester,  N.  Y 162,608 

Rockford,  111 31,051 

Rock  Island,  111 19,493 

Rome,  N.  Y 15,343 

Rutland,  Vt 11.499 

Sacramento,  Cal 29,282 

Saginaw,  Mich 42,345 

St.  Albans,  Vt 6,239 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 4,272 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 102,979 

St.  Louis.'Mo ^t  5f  5,238 

St.  Paul,  Minn 163,065 

Salem,  Mass 35,956 

Salem,  Ore 4,258 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah    53.531 

San  Antonio,  Tcj#r •56,321 

San  Diego,  Cal 17,700 

Sandusky,  Ohio 19,664 

San  Francisco,  Cal ^341,782 

San  Jose,  Cal '21,500 

Santa  Fe,  N.  M 5,6(  3 

Saratoga  Springs,  NVY.  . . .  12,409 

SaultSte.  Marie... 10,538 

Savannah,  Ga 54-,244 

Schenectady,  N.  Y ,.  31,682 

Scranton,  Pa 102,026 

Seattle,  Wash 80,671 

Sedalia,  Mo 15,231 

Selma,  Ala 8,713 

Shamokin,  Pa 18,202 

Sheboygan,  Wis 22,962 

Shenandoah,  Pa 20,321 

Shreveport,  La 16,013 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 33,111 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  D 10,266 

Sitka,  Alaska 1,396 

Somerville,  Mass 61,643 

South  Bend,  Ind.    35,999 

South  Omaha,  Neb 26,001 

Spartanburg,  S.  C 11,395 

Spokane,  Wash 36,848 

Springfield,  111 34, 159 

Springfield,  Mass 62,059 

Springfield,  Mo 23,267 

Springfield,  Ohio 38,253 

Stamford,  Conn 15,997 

Stillwater,  Minn 12,318 

Stockton,  Cal 17,506 

Superior,  Wis 31,091 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 108,374 

Tacoma,  Wash 37,714 

Tallahassee,  Fla 2,981 

Tampa,  Fla 15,839 

Taunton,  Mass 31,036 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 36,673 

Toledo,  Ohio 131,822 

Topeka,  Kan 33,608 

Trenton,  N.J 73,307 

Troy,  N.  Y 60,651 

Tucson,  Ariz 7,531 

Utica,  N.  Y 56,383 

Vicksburg,  Miss 14,834 

Virginia  City,  Nev 2,695 

Waco,  Tex 20,686 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 10,049 

Waltham,  Mass. .    23,481 

Washington,  D.  C ^278,718 

Waterbury,  Conn 45,859 

Watertown,  N.  Y 21,696 

Watervliet,  N.  Y 14,321 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 38,878 

Wichita,  Kan 24,671 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 51,721 

Williamsport,  Pa 28,757 

Wilmington,  Del 76,508 

Wilmington,  N.  C -40.976 

Winona,  Minn 19,714 

Winston,  N.  C 10,008 

Woburn,  Mass '       14,254 

Woonsoeket,  R.  1 28,204. 

Worcester,  Mass 118,421 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 47,931 

York,  Pa 33,708 

Youngstown,  Ohio 44,885 

Zanesville,  Ohio 23,538 


POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FOREIGN  CITIES. 


Aberdeen,  Scotland 144,000 

Adelaide,  Australia 163,000 

Alexandria,  Egypt 320,000 

Algiers,  Algeria 97,000 

Allahabad,  India 172,000 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands 631,000 

Antofagasta,  Chile 16,000 

Antwerp,  Belgium 278,000 

Arequipa,  Peru 35,000 

Asuncion,  Paraguay 62,000 

Athens,  Greece 112,000 

Auckland,  New  Zealand 34,000 

Bagdad,  Turkey 145,000 

Baliia,  Brazil 175,000 

Baku,  Transcaucasia 112,000 

Ballarat,  Australia 50,000 

Bangalore,  India 159,000 

Bangkok,  Siam 400,000 

Barcelona,  Spain 533,000 

Barfrush,  Persia 50,000 

Barranquilla,  Colombia 40,000 

Basel,  Switzerland 111,000 

Batavia,  Java 116,000 

Beirut,  Turkey 120,000 

Belfast,  Ireland 349,000 

Belgrade,  Servia 69,000 

Benares,  India 209,000 

Bergen,  Norway 72,000 

Berlin,  Germany 1,889,000 

Bern,  Switzerland 65,000 

Bilbao,  Spain 83,000 

Birmingham,  England 522,000 

Bloeiufontein.OrangeRiverCol.  6,000 

Bogota,  Colombia 120,000 

Bologna,  Italy 152,000 

Bombay,  India 776,000 

Bordeaux,  Fiance 258,000 

Bradford,  England 280,000 

Bremen,  Germany 164,000 

Breslau,  Germany 423,000 

Brisbane,  Australia 120,000 

Bristol,  England 329.000 

Brussels,  Belgium 663,000 

Budapest,  Hungary 732,000 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina 836,000 

Bnkharest,  Roumania 282,000 

Bushire,  Persia 20,000 

Cairo,  Egypt 670,000 

Calcutta,  India 1,125,000 

Callao,  Peru 16,000 

Canton,  China 800,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony 61,000 

Caracas,  Venezuela 73,000 

Cardiff,  Wales 164,000 

Catania,  Italy 150,000 

Cawnpur,  India 197,000 

Cayenne,  French  Guiana  13,000 

Cetin je,  Montenegro 4,000 

Charlottetown,  Canada 12,000 

Chemnitz,  Germany  , .  207,000 

Chilian,  Chile 35,000 

Christiania,  Norway 228,000 

Cochabamba,  Bolivia 22,000 

Cologne,  Germany 873,000 

Colombo,  Ceylon 158,000 

Concepcion,  Chile 48,000 

Constantinople,  Turkey 1,126,000 


COD 
(01) 
(•97) 
(01) 
C01) 
(•01) 
COD 
C01) 
C96) 
COD 
C96) 
C01) 

C90) 
C97) 
COD 
(01) 

COO) 


C01) 
COO) 

(01) 
COD 
COD 
COO) 

COO) 
COD 

Coo) 
COD 

C86) 
COD 
Col) 

(01) 
COD 
COO) 
COO) 
COD 
COD 
COD 
Coo) 

(01) 
C99) 

C97) 
COD 
C90) 
COD 
C9D 
C94) 
C01) 
C01) 
C01) 

Col) 

COD 
Coo) 

COO) 

COO) 

COO) 
COO) 
(01) 

Coo) 


Copenhagen,  Denmark 378,000 

Cordova,  Argentina 50,000 

Cuzco,  Peru 20,000 

Damascus,  Turkey 225,000 

Danzig,  Germany 141,000 

Delhi,  India 209,000 

Dresden,  Germany 396,000 

Dublin,  Ireland  291,000 

Dundee,  Scotland 161,000 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand 25,000 

Dusseldorf,  Germany 214,000 

Edinburgh,  Scotland 317,000 

Essen,  Germany 119,000 

Fez,  Morocco 140,000 

Florence,  Italy 206,000 

Frankfurt  am  Main,  Germany  .  289,000 

Fredericton,  Canada 7,000 

Fuchau,  China 650,000 

Geneva,  Switzerland 105,000 

Genoa,  Italy 235,000 

Georgetown,  British  Guiana. . .  53,000 

Ghent,  Belgium 162,000 

Glasgow,  Scotland 776,000 

Gothenburg,  Sweden 131,000 

Gratz,  Austria 138,000 

Guadalajara,  Mexico 101,000 

Guayaquil,  Ecuador 51,000 

Hague,  Netherlands 218,000 

Haidarabad,  India 449,000 

Halifax,  Canada 41,000 

Hamburg,  Germany 706,000 

Hamilton,  Canada 53,000 

Hangchau,  China 700,000 

Hankau,  China 850,000 

Hanover,  Germany 236,000 

Havana,  Cuba 236,000 

Havre,  France    130,000 

Hobart,  Tasmania 26,000 

Hull,  England 241,000 

Iquique,  Chile 43,000 

Irkutsk,  Siberia 62,000 

Ispahan,  Persia 80,000 

Jerusalem,  Turkey 42,000 

Johannesburg.Transvaal  Colony  102,000 

Kabul,  Afghanistan 100,000 

Kandahar,  Afghanistan 50,000 

Kharkof,  Russia 175,000 

Kief,  Russia 247,000 

Kimberley,  Cape  Colony 29,000 

Konigsberg,  Germany 190,000 

Kyoto,  Japan 353,000 

La  Guaira,  Venezuela 14,000 

Lahore,  India 203,000 

La  Paz,  Bolivia 57,000 

La  Plata,  Argentina 35,000 

Lassa,  Tibet 25,000 

Leeds,  England 429,000 

Leghorn,  Italy 99,000 

Leicester,  England .  212,000 

Leipzig,  Germany 456,000 

Lemberg,  Austria 160,000 

Leon,  Mexico 58,000 

Liege,  Belgium 160,000 

Lima,  Peru 100,000 

Lisbon,  Portugal 357,000 

Lisle,  France 211,000 

Liverpool,  England 744,000 


C01) 
C01) 


COO) 

COD 
COl) 
COD 
(01) 
(01) 
COO) 
Coi) 

('00) 
COl) 

('01) 
(01) 
(01) 
(01) 
COl) 
C91) 

Coi) 

('02) 
(00) 
COO) 
COO) 

COl) 
Coi) 
COD 
COO) 
COl) 

Coi) 

COD 
COO) 
C99) 
COl) 

Coi) 

(01) 

COl) 

C97) 


C96) 


C97) 
C97) 
C91) 
COO) 
(98) 

(01) 
COO) 
(01) 

(01) 
COl) 
COD 
COO) 
COO) 
COO) 

Coi) 

COO) 
('01) 
C03) 


Lodz,  Russia 815,000  ('97) 

London,  Canada 38,000  ('01) 

London,  England 4,537,000  COI ) 

Lucknow,  India. 264,000  (01) 

Lyons,  France 469,000  (01) 

Madras,  India. 509,000  COl) 

Madrid,  Spain 640,000  COO) 

Madgeburg,  Germany 230,000  (00) 

Malaga,  Spain 130,000  ('00) 

Managua,  Nicaragua 30,000  (00) 

Manchester,  England 644,000  COl) 

Mandalay,  Burma. 184,000  ('01) 

Manila,  Philippine  Islands  . . .  220,000  (03) 

Maracaibo,  Venezuela 34,000  ('94) 

Maranhao,  Brazil 29,000  ('90) 

Marseilles,  France 491,000  ('01) 

Maskat,  Oman 40,000 

Matanzas,  Cuba 86,000  ('99) 

Mecca,  Turkey 60,000 

Medellin,  Colombia 40,000  C86) 

Melbourne,  Australia 496,000  ('01) 

Messina,  Italy 150,000  (01) 

Mexico 346,000  (00) 

Milan,  Italy 492,000  ('01) 

Molleudo,  Peru 3,000 

Monterey,  Mexico 62,000  ('00) 

Montevideo,  Uruguay 268,000  ('00) 

Montreal,  Canada 268,000  COl) 

Morocco  46,000 

Moscow,  Russia 989,000  ('97) 

Mukden,  Manchuria 200,000 

Munich,  Germany 600,000  ('00) 

Nagoya,  Japan 244,000  ('98) 

Nantes,  France 133,000  ('01) 

Naples,  Italy 664,000  ('01) 

Newcastle,  England 215,000  (01) 

New  Guatemala,  Guatemala...  74,000  ('91) 

Ningpo,  China 255,000  (01) 

Nottingham,  England 240,000  ('01) 

Nuremberg,  Germany 261,000  ('00) 

Odessa,  Russia 405,000  C97) 

Oporto,  Portugal 173,000  COO) 

Oran,  Algeria 88,000  (01) 

Osaka,  Japan 821,000  ('98) 

Ottawa,  Canada 60,000  COl) 

Palermo,  Italy 810,000  (01) 

Panama,  Panama 30,000  ('86) 

Para,  Brazil 50,000  C90) 

Paramaribo,  Dutch  Guiana 32,000  COO) 

Paris,  France 2,714,000  (01) 

Peking,  China 1,000,000 

Pernambuco,  Brazil 112,000  C90) 

Perth,  Australia 36,000  ('01) 

Port  Elizabeth,  Cape  Colony. . .  23,000  ('91) 

Porto  Alegre,  Brazil 62,000  C90) 

Port  Said,  Egypt 42,000  C97) 

Portsmouth,  England 189,000  ('01) 

Prague,  Austria 202,000  ('00) 

Pretoria,  Transvaal  Colony 10,000 

Puebla,  Mexico 94,000  COO) 

Quebec,  Canada 69,000  ('01) 

Quito,  Ecuador 80,000  COO) 

Rangoon,  Burma 235,000  (01) 

Rheims,  France 108,000  ('OH 

Riga,  Russia 256,000  ('97) 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil 750,000  (00) 

Rome.Italy 463,000  ('01) 


Rosario,  Argentina 113,000 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands 332,000 

Roubaix,  France 142,000 

Rouen,  France 116,000 

Saigon,  French  Indo-China 60,000 

St.  Etienne,  France 147,000 

St.  John,  Canada 41,000 

St.  Johns,  Newfoundland 30,000 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia 1,267,000 

Salford,  England 221,000 

Saloniki,  Turkey 105,000 

San  Jose,  Costa  Rica 25,000 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico 32,000 

San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico 61,000 

San  Salvador,  Salvador 60,000 

Santiago,  Chile 297,000 

Santiago  de  Cuba 43,000 

Santos,  Brazil 15,000 

Sao  Paulo,  Brazil 66,000 

Seoul,  Korea 197,000 

Seville,  Spain 148,000 

Shanghai,  China 620,000 

Sheffield,  England 381,000 

Singapore,  Straits  Settlements  229,000 

Smyrna,  Turkey 201,000 

Sofia,  Bulgaria 68,000 

Stettin,  Germany 211,000 

Stockholm,  Sweden, 803,000 

Strassburg,  Germany 151,000 

Stuttgart,  Germany 177,000 

Suchau,  China 600,000 

Sucre,  Bolivia 21,000 

Sydney,  Australia 497,000 

Tabriz,  Persia 180,000 

Talca,  Chile 41,000 

Tananarivo,  Madagascar 50,000 

Tashkend,  Turkestan 157,000 

Tegucigalpa,  Honduras 13,000 

Teheran,  Persia 250,000 

Tientsin,  China 700,000 

Tiflis,  Transcaucasia 161,000 

Tiumen,  Siberia  30,000 

Tokyo,  Janan 1,440,000 

Toronto,  Canada 208,000 

Toulouse,  France 150,000 

Trebizond,  Turkey 35,000 

Trieste,  Austria 134,000 

Tripoli,  Tripoli 30,000 

Tucuman,  Argentina 60,000 

Tunis,  Tunis 170,000 

Turin,  Italy 336,000 

Valencia,  Spain 214,000 

Valencia,  Venezuela 39,000 

Valparaiso,  Chile 133,000 

Vancouver,  Canada 26,000 

Venice,  Italy 152,000 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico 24,000 

Victoria,  Canada  21,000 

Vienna,  Austria 1,675,000 

Vilna,  Russia 155,000 

Vladivostok,  Siberia 29,000 

Warsaw,  Russia 638,000 

Wellington,  New  Zealand 44,000 

Winnipeg,  Canada 42,000 

Yokohama,  Japan  194,000 

Zanzibar,  Africa 60,000 

Zurich,  Switzerland 153,000 


C01) 
COO) 
COl) 
COD 

C01) 
(01) 
COD 
C97) 
(•01) 

C97) 
C99) 
(00) 
C01) 
COD 
CM) 

('90) 
COO) 
(00) 
C01) 
COl) 
COl) 

COO) 
COO) 
COl) 
COO) 
(00) 
COD 
COO) 
COl) 

(00) 
COl) 
C97) 
COO) 

Coi) 

('97) 
C97) 
C98) 
(01) 
COl) 

COO) 

(01) 

COl) 
COO) 
C94) 
(01) 
COD 
COl) 
COO) 
COl) 

Coo) 

C97) 
C97) 
C97) 
(01) 
COl) 
C98) 

COD 


HEIGHTS  OF  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS. 


WEALTH   AND  EARNINGS. 


Feet. 

Abyssinian  Highland 6,500 

Aconcagua,  Argentina 23,082 

Alps,  Switzerland    8,500 

Altai  Mountains,  Mongolia 6,300 

Andes,  South  America 13,000 

Apennines,  Italy 4,000 

Appalachian  Mountains,  TJ.  S 2,500 

Atlas  Mountains,  Africa 9,000 

Australian  Mountains,  E.  Australia.     5,000 

Balkan  Mountains,  Europe 4,500 

Blanc,  Mont,  France 15,744 

Bohmerwald,  Austria-Hungary 2,500 

Bolivian  Plateau 12,500 

Brazilian  Plateau 2,000 

Carpathian  Mountains,  Aus.-Hun.   .     5,000 
Cascade  Mountains,  North  America.    9,000 

Caucasus  Mountains,  Russia  10,000 

Chimborazo,  volcano,  Ecuador 20,517 

Coast  Ranges,  United  States 3,000 

Cotopaxi,  volcano,  Ecuador 16,291 

Dekkan  Plateau,  India 2,000 


Feet. 

Demavend,  volcano,  Persia 18,846 

Elburz,  Mount,  Caucasus 18,493 

Etna,  volcano,  Sicily 10,874 

Everest,  Mount,  Nepal 29,002 

Fremont  Peak,  Wyoming 13,790 

Fujiyama,  volcano,  Japan 14,177 

Guiana  Plateau 2,000 

Hecla,  volcano,  Iceland 5,110 

Himalaya  Mountains,  Asia -.  19,000 

Hindu-Kush,  Afghanistan 18,000 

Hooker,  Mount,  Canada 12,000 

Iran  Plateau,  Persia 6,000 

Jura  Mountains,  France 3,000 

Karakoram  Mountains,  Tibet 18,500 

Kenia,  Mount,  Africa 18,000 

Kilimanjaro,  Africa 20,000 

Kiolen  Mountains,  Norway 3,000 

Kuenlnn,  Tibet 18,000 

Longs  Peak,  Colorado 14,271 

Mauna  Kea,  Hawaii  13,953 

McKinley,  Mount,  Alaska 20,464 


.  Feet. 

Mexican  Plateau,  Mexico 7,500 

Mitchell,  Mount,  North  Carolina  . . .    6,711 

Mongolian  Plateau,  Asia 3,500 

Orizaba,  volcano,  Mexico 18,314 

Pikes  Peak,  Colorado 14,147 

Popocatepetl,  volcano,  Mexico 17,784 

Pyrenees  Mountains,  Spain 8,000 

Rainier,  Mount,  "Washington 14,626 

Rocky  Mountain  Highland,  U.  8 5,000 

Rocky  Mountains,  North  America  . .  10,000 

Sahama,  volcano,  Bolivia  22,350 

Shasta,  Mount,  California 14,350 

Sierra  Nevada,  United  States 9,000 

Sorata,  Bolivia 21,286 

St.  Elias,  Mount,  Alaska 18,010 

Thian  Shan,  Asia 18,000 

Tibet  Plateau 15,000 

!  nil  Mountains,  Russia 3,500 

Vesuvius,  volcano,  Italy  4,205 

Washington,  Mount,  N.  H 6,286 

Whitney,  Mount,  California 14,898 


Wealth 
in  million 
dollars. 

United  States  (main  body)  . .  78,480 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  . . .  56,669 

France  40,512 

Germany 38,650 

European  Russia 30,840 

Austria-Hungary 21,658 

Italy 15,168 

Spain 11,424 

Belgium 4,742 

Netherlands 4,224 

Sweden  and  Norway 3,792 

Denmark 2,429 

Switzerland 2,362 

Portugal 1,973 

Greece 1,066 

Danubian  States 4,925 

Total  Europe  (exc.  Turkey)  . .  246,434 

Australia  and  New  Zealand  . .  5,165 

Canada  4,814 

Argentina 2,957 


Annual 
Earnings 

Av'ee 
An.  Earn. 

Av'ge 

Inhah. 

in  million 

per  money  per  sq. 

dollars. 

earner. 

mile. 

14,957 

$473 

26 

6,830 

406 

343 

6,765 

333 

187 

6,163 

258 

268 

4,819 

100 

62 

3,394 

164 

180 

2,093 

160 

293 

1,310 

179 

94 

869 

296 

699 

595 

275 

401 

682 

212 

24 

288 

290 

165 

336 

278 

205 

807 

175 

185 

134 

125 

97 

706 

137 

110 

34,281 

207 

103 

1,032 

680 

1 

878 

363 

1 

456 

264 

3 

RIVERS   AND  THEIR  BASINS. 


An.  Rainfall 
in  Basin. 
River  System.  Cubic  Miles. 

Amazon  (exc.  Tocantins) 2,833.8 

Kongo 1,213.0 

Plata 1,035.4 

Nile 892.1 

Mississippi .. .-. 673.0 

Orinoco 603.3 

Niger 570.0 

Ganges-Brahmaputra 548.7 

Yangtze 408.8 

St.  Lawrence 338.9 

Yenisei 330.0 

Zambezi 300.0 

Ob.. 280.0 

Lena 270.0 

Amur 240.0 

Slo  Francisco 218.4 

Mekong 200.0 


Area  of 

Longest 

Basin. 

Stream. 

quare  Miles. 

Miles. 

2,320,000 

3,400 

1,500,000 

2,8001 

1,150,000 

2,600 

1,300,000 

3,900 

1,250,000 

4,200 

425,000 

1,500 

1,000,000 

2,900 

600,000 

1,800 

690,000 

3.100 

565,000 

2,100 

1,500,000 

3,000 

680,000 

1,600 

1,100,000 

3,000 

900,000 

2,800 

780,000 

2,700 

210,000 

1,800 

280,000 

2,600 

An.  Rainfall 
In  Basin. 
River  System.  Cubic  Miles. 

Danube  ., 198.7 

Irawadi 180.8 

Volga 152.3 

Yukon 150.0 

Murray 140.0 

Nelson-Saskatchewan 130.0 

Hoang 117.7 

Magdalena 116.7 

Mackenzie    115.0 

Rio  Grande 113.6 

Indus 104.4 

Columbia 90.0 

Euphrates  60.0 

Dnieper 66.0 

Colorado , . . .  66.0 

Orange 50.9 

Po 23.9 


Area  of 

Longest 

Basin. 

Stream. 

Square  Miles. 

Miles. 

320,000 

1,800 

180,000 

(?) 

690,000 

2,300 

380,000 

2,000 

350,000 

1,100 

470,000 

1,900 

390,000 

2,800 

90,000 

1,100 

680,000 

2,100 

230,000 

1,800 

360,000 

1,900 

290,000 

1.400 

490,000 

2,000 

197,000 

1,300 

230,000 

1,000 

270,000 

1,200 

27,000 

460 

LAKES. 

Area. 
Sq.  Miles. 

Caspian 169,383± 

Victoria 32,167 

Superior ...  31,200 

Aral  26,166± 

Huron 23,800 

Michigan 22,450 

Tanganyika 14,000 

Baikal   13,197 

Tchad 10,400± 

Erie 9,960 

Winnipeg 9,400 

Balkash 8,550± 

Ontario  7,240 

Ladoga 7,000 

Titicaca 8,261 

Nicaragua 2,800 

Great  Salt  Lake 2,300  ± 

Dead  Sea 363 


Altitude. 

Depth. 

Feet 

Feet 

-85  ± 

3,096  ± 

4,0007 

620 

602 

1,008 

168± 

220  ± 

681 

702 

581 

870 

2,670 

1,300  ± 

1,400? 

4,600 

1,100  ± 

20± 

673 

210 

710 

72 

900± 

135± 

247 

738 

66 

732 

12,500 

926 

108 

320 

4,200  ± 

50± 

-1,290± 

1,308± 

159 

INDEX 

AND 

PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 

KEY.— Vowels  :  a  in  late,  a  in  fat,  a  in  c&re,  a  in  far,  a  in  last,  a  in  fall,  a  in  was,  a,  in  final,  au  in  author ;  S  in  mS,  6  in  met,  berry, 
§  in  veil,  6  in  term,  e  in  novel ;  I  in  fine,  I  in  tin,  5t  in  police,  i  in  basin ;  0  in  nOte,  6  in  n6t,  6  in  s6n,  6  in  for,  o  in  do  ;  u  in  tune,  fi  in 
niit,  u  in  rude  (=  o),  ii  in  full,  a  =  French  u,  ua  m  wa,  ue  =  we  ;  y  in  my,  y  in  hymn.  Consonants:  c  in  cent,  machine,  e  in  ean ;  g  in 
gem,  f  in  get ;  K  =  German  ch ;  n  =  ng,  fi  like  ny  in  barnyard,  N  =  ng  but  is  silent ;  §  =  z  ;  th  in  thine  ;  $  =  gz.    Italic  letters  are  silent. 


Ab-ys-sin'i-a  149 
A-cdn-ca'gua,  Mt.  109 
Ad'g-laide  152 
A'den  137 

Adf-rdn'dackMts.  68 
Ad-ri-at'ic  113 
^E-ge'an  (§-)  113 
Af-gA&n-Is-tan'  138 
At 'ri-ca  9,  17,  144-149 
African  life  region  29,  30, 

31,  146 
ag'ri-cul-ture  37,   38,  57, 

58,  66,  78,  85,  89,  108, 

120,  139,  141,  147,  152 
Ak'ron  73 
Al-a-ba'ma  81 
A-las'ka  91,  47,  49 
Al'ba-ny  (al'-)  69 
Al'be-marl'e  Sd.  80 
Al-bert'a  94 
Al-bu-quer'que   (-kar'ka) 

87" 
Al-6x-Sn'dri-a  147 
Al-ge'ri-a  147,  148,  145 
Al-gierg'  148 
Al'Tg-gfca-ny  plateaus  50, 

51 
Al'te-g/se-ny  70 
al-lfl'vl-um  18,  19 
Al-ma-den'  129 
Alps  114,  115 
Al-sace'-LSr-rat'ne'  124 
Al-toi'  Mts.  114 
Al-ta-ma-ha'  (al-)  80 
Al'tAing~97"     " 
Am'a-zdn  104,  105,  108 
a-meer'  138 
A-mSr'I-ca:  see  Western 

Continent 
Am'ster-dam  125 
A-mur'  114,  115 
An-a-con'da  86 
A-n8m'  140 
An'deg  103,  104 
An-dor'ra  129 
An-dros-cog'gin  63 
An 'gleg  119 
an'i-mals  28-32,  38,  47,  93, 

95,  97,  105, 107, 115, 116, 

146,  151,  152 
An-nap'o-lis  71 
Ann  Ar'bor  75 
An'ms-ton  81 
An-tarc'tic  9,  24 
An-ti-c6s'ti  93 
An-til'leg  99,  100 
An-to-fa-gas'ta  110 
Ant'werp  128 
Ap-a-l&ch'ee  Bay  81 
A\-pa-lach-I-co'la  81 
Ap'en-nineg  114 
Ap-pa-la'chl-an  45,  50,  51 

53  59 

f-ra'bi-a  137,  113 
r'abg  33,  137,  138,    142 
..  146,  147,  148 
A-ra-fu'ra  153 
A-ra-guay'  108 
Ar'al  17,  115 
ar-efti-pel'a-go  9 
Arc'tic  9,  24, 27,  93 
A-re-qui'pS  (-ke'-)  110 
Ar-gSn-ti'na  109,  108 
a-ris'to-crats  36 
Ar-I-zo'na  87,  17,  29 
Ar'kan-sas  82 
Ar-m§'nf-ang  137,  138 
^-roos'took  63 
ar-te'sian  (-zhan)  well  14 
Ar'yan  33,  35,  117 
Ashe'vilte  80 
Asia  (a'sM-a)  9,  17,  135- 

143 
As-sIn-I-boi'a  94 
As-to'rl-a  90 
A-suri-ci'-dn'  109 
At-ba'ra  145 
Atch-af-a-luy'a  82 


Ath-a-bas'ca  92 
Ath'eng  132 
At-lan'ta  80 
At-lan'tic  9,  27 
Atlantic  plain  49,  50 
At'las  145 

at-mos-phgr'ic  agents  12 
a-toll'  22 
Au'burn  64 
Auck'land  153 
Au-gus'ta,  Ga.  80 ;  Me.  64 
Aus'tin  83 
Aus-tra'li-a  9,  10, 17,  150- 

152,  21,  34,  91,  95 
Australian  life  region  29, 

30,  151 
Aus'tri-a-Hun'ga-ry    126, 

119,  120,  132 
au'tumn  23 

Auvergne  (o-varn')  128 
ax'is  6,  23 
4-zoreg'  130 
Az'tecs  98 
Bab  el  Man'dSb  145 
Bad  Lands  52 
Bag-dad'  137 
Ba-ha'mag  99,  100 
Ba-M'a  109 
Bai'kal  115 
Bii-kn'  133,  136,  137 
Bal-e"-ar'ic  129 
Bal-kan'  132 
Bal-kSsh'  115 
Bal-la-rat'  152 
Bal'tic  113 
Bal'tl-more  71 
Ba-lu-cMs-tan'  138 
B&ne'a  142 
Ban'da  Sea  142 
BSng-kSk'  140 
Banyg6r  64 
Bang-we-6'16  145 
Ban'try  Bay  122 
Ba-ra'n5f  91 
Bar'ba-dos  100 
bar-ba'rf-ans  35,  36 
Bar'ba-ry  States  147 
Bar-cg-lo'na  130 
Bar-frush'  138 
Bar-raii-quil'la     (-Kel'ya) 

111 
Bar're  64 
bar'ri-er  beach  21 
Ba'sel  128 
ba'sin  15 
Ba-ta'vl-a  142 
Bath  64 

Bat'dn  Rouge  (rozh)  83 
Ba-tum'  137 
bay  i'O 
Bay  City  75 
Ba-y8nne'  71 
bay'ow  19 
BSd'ou-in§  137 
bed  rock  13 
beets  38,  120,  124 
Bei'rut  137 
Bel-fiist'  124 
Bel'gi-um,  Bel'gi-ans  128, 

Bel-grade'  132 
Bel-ize'  99 
Ben-a'rSg  139 
Ben-gal',  Bay  113 
Ben-In',  Bight  145 
Ber'berg  33,  146,  147 
Ber'ggn  126 
Be 'ring  45 
Berk' shire  Hills  63 
Ber'lin  125 
Ber-mu'da  44 
BSrn  128 
bey  148 
Bhu-tan'  139 
Bi-iif'ra,  Bight  145 
Bid'dg-ford  64 
Big  Sioux  76 
Bil-ba'o  129 


Bil-H-toV  142 
Bin-u-e'  145 
Bir'ming-ham  (-im)  Ala. 

81 ;  Eng.  124 
Bis'cay,  Bay  113 
Bis'kra  148 
Bis'marck  77 
Black  Hills  77 
Bloem-fSn'tein  149 
Blue  Grass  region  74 
Blue  Ridge  50,  68 
bluff  51 
Boerg  149 
bog  22 

B6-go-ta'  111 
Bohmerwald         (be'mer- 

valt)  124 
Boi'ge  86 

BdK/t-"a'ra  137,  136 
Bo-Hv'I-a  110,  108,  103 
Bom-bay'  139 
Boo'thi-a  93 
Bor-deaux'  (-do')  129 
bore  21 
B6r'ne-o  142 
B6g'ni-a  131 
B5s'pho-rus  132 
Bds'ton  64,  65,  63 
B6th'nl-a,  Gulf  113 
bottom  land  19 
bowl'der  20 
BriiA'man-igm  36, 136 
BraA-ma-pu'tra  138       , 
branch  15 

Brat'fle-bo-ro  (-bur-ro)  64 
Bra-zil',  Bra-zil'ian  (-yan) 

108,  109,  103,  105,  130 
Bra'zos  51 
BrSm'en  124,  125 
Bres'lau  (-lou)  125 
Bridge'port  65 
Brig' bane  152 
Bris'tol  Channel  122 
Brit'ish:  see  GreatBritain 
Brit'ish  Co-lum'bi-a  95 
Brock'ton  65 
Brook'lyn  69 
Brus'selg  128 
Bu'da-pest  126 
Bud'dftigm  36,  136 
Buenos     Aires      (bo'nus 

a'riz)  109 
Buf'fa-lo  69 
Bu-k/ia-rest'  132 
Bul-ga'ri-a  132,  120 
Bun'd6s-rat/j  124 
Bur'ling-ton,  la.   76;  Vt. 

64 
Bur'ma,  Bur-mese'  140 
bush  151 
Bu-shire'  138 
Butte  86 

Ca'bes,  Gulf  145 
Cab'i-net  55 
Cai'ro  147 
Cal-cut'ta  139 
Cal-I-f6r'nIa90,  91, 12,  20, 

37,  41,  53,  89 
Cal-la'6  110 
caftng  26 

Cam-bo'di-a  (-de-)  140 
Cam'bri-an  Mts.  122 
Cam'bridge  65 
Cam 'den  71 
cam'elg  31,  38,  116,   137, 

138,  139,  141,   147,  148, 

149 
cam'pos  105 
Can'a-da  92-95,  47,  49,  63, 

68 
Ca-na/di-an  (-de-)  R.  87 
ci-nalg'  42,  60,~68,  69,  75, 

121,  140,  147 
Ca-na'ry  Is.  129 
Can'cer  24 

Can-ta'bri-an  Mts.  129 
Can-ton'  141 
can'y6n  17 


cape  11,  21 

Cape  A-gul'has  (-yas)  145 

Cape  Brgt'on  94 

Cape  Ca-nav'er-al  81 

Cape  Cod  50 

Cape  Col'o-ny  149 

Cape  Guar-da-fui'  (-fwe') 

145 
Cape  Hat'ter-as  80 
Cape  Men-do-c'i'no  88 
Cape  Pa-ri-na'  103 
Cape  Ro-ma'no  81 
Cape  St.  Roque  (rok)  103 
Cape  Town  149 
Cape  Verde  Is.  130 
cap'i-tal  42 
Cap'ri-corn  24 
Ca-ra'cas  111 
Car'diff  124 
Car-ib-be'an  9 
Car-pa'thl-an  114,  126 
Car-pen-ta'ri-a  (-re-)151 
Car'son  City  87 
cas-cade'  18 
Cascade  Mts.  53,  89 
Cas'pi-an  17,  114,  115,  119 
caste  138 
cat'a-ract  18 
Cats'kill  Mts.  68 
cattle  38,  58,  67,  79,  85,  89, 
97,  98,  107, 108,  116,  120, 
136,  137,  138,  148,  149, 
152,  153 
Cau'ca  (kou'-)  110     ■ 
Cau-ca'sian  (-shgn)  33 
Cau'ca-sus  114,  119 
cave  15 

Ca-yen«e'  (or  ki-Sn')  111 
Ca-yu'ga  L.  68 
Cel'e-beg  142 
Celts  123 
Central  A-mer'i-ca  99,  47, 

49 
Central  Lowland  46,  51 
Cetinje  (cha-ten'ya)  132 
Ce-vennes'  128 
Ce>18V  139 
Qham-plain',  L.  64 
Chan'nel  Is.  122 
Charleg'ton,  S.  C.  80;  W. 

Va.  /72 
Char'lotfe  80 
(Jhar'lotte-town  94 
Chat-ta-hoo'chee  80 
Chat-ta-noo'ga  82 
Chaw-tau'qua  68 
ChSl'sea  62 
Che-mul'pho  141 
Cher-o-keeg'  83 
Ch6s'a-peake  50,  68,  71 
Che-sun'cook  L.  63 
Cheviot  (chlv'e-ut)  Hills 

122 
Chey-Sn»e'  86 
Chi-ca'go  (she-)  74,  43 
Chick'a-sawgl53 
Chi'le  109,'  108 
Chilian  (chel-y&n')  109 
Chim-bo-ra'zo  110 
Chi'na,  Chi-nese'  140,  141, 
33,  57,  89,  91,  100,  111, 
117,   136,  139,  142,  152, 
153 
Chip'pe-wa  75 
Choe'tawg  83 
€hris-ti-a'ni-a  126 
Chris-tian'i-ty  (kris- 

chan'-)  36,  94,  98,  108, 
119,  120,  136,  147,  149 
Chu-but'  R.  109 
Church'ill  R.  93 
Qin-cin-na'ti  73 
cir-cum'fer-ence  5 
city  42,  43,  59,  121 
civ-Wi-za'tion  35,  37,  117, 

119,  135 
Cleve'land  73 
cli'mate  24,  23-28 


cloud  14 

Clyde  R.  122 

coal   22,   40,   59,  93,   109, 

121,   136,    139-142,   152, 

153 
coast  10,  11,  21 
Coast  Ranges  53,  89 
Co-cha-bam'ba  110 
Co'chin  Chi'na  140 
coffee  31,  38,  98,  99,  100, 

108,   137,  139,   142,  148, 

149 
Co-logrne'  125 
Co-lom'bi-a  110,  111,  108 
C6-16m'bo  139 
Col-o-rii'do  86,  87,  13;  R. 

17,  46,  52,  87 
Colorado  Springs  87        M 
Co-lum'bl-a  80;  plat.  52; 

R.  46,  89,  90 
Co-lum'bus,  Ga.  80 ;  O.  73 
com'merce  41,  42,  60,  63, 

68,  79,  89,  95,  98,   108,  iDreg'den  125 

121,  123,  135,  136,  139.,  drift  20 

140,  142  ^ 

c6m'pass  6 

Con-cep'cion  (-shun)  109 
Cone'ord  64 
Con'gress  55,  72 
Con-nect'i-cut  65 
Con-stan-ti-no'ple  132 
con'sul  42 
con'tl-nent  9 
con-ti-nen'tal  divide   17; 

island  9,  32 ;  plateau  9 ; 

sea  9 
con-towr'  45 
Coo's'a  R.  80 
C6-pen-ha'gen  125 
cop'per  15,  59,  85,  93,  98, 


Den'mark  125,  95,  97, 100, 

119,  120 
Den'ver86 
de-pres'sion  9 
deg'ert  29 
Des  Moines'  76 
de-tri'tus  13 
De-troit'  75 
dew  14 
di-am'e-ter  5 
dike  125 

Di-nar'ie  (de-)  Alps  119 
District  of  Columbia  71,  72 
dl-vide'  17 
Dnie'per  114 
Don  114 

Don-e-gal'  Bay  122 
D6r-d6fif'ne'  128 
Dow'ro  129 
Do'ver,   Del.   71;   N.   H. 

64 
Do-vre-field'  (-fygld')  125 


drum'lin  20 

Dub'lin  124 

Du-buaue'  (-buk')  76 

Du-luth'  76 

Du'n'a  119 

dune  13 

Dun-Sd'in  153 

Dur'ham  (-um)  80 

Dutch  69, 149;  see  Nether- 
lands 

earth'quake  12,  53,  97,  99, 
103,  114,  141,  145 

east,  6 

East  Central  States,  72 

Eastern  Continent,  9-11 

East  In'dieg  9,  10,  142 


108,  121,  140,   141,  142, l  East  O'ma-ha  77 


] -,9 

Copts  147 

cor'al   21,  22,   39,  81,  99, 

120,  147 
C6>'d6-va  109 
corn  30,  35,  37,  58,  67,  77, 

79,   108,   120,    137,   138, 

147,  148 
C6r'si-ca  128 
Cos'ta  Ri'ca  99 
Co-to-pfix'i  110 
cot'ton  38,  58,  78,  81,  82, 

108,  137,   138,   139,  141, 

147,  148,  149 
Coun'cil  Bluffs  77 
Cov'ing-ton  74 
cra'ter  12 
Creeks  83 
Crete  132 
cre-vasse'  51 
Cu'ba  99,  100,  49 
Cum'ber-land    71 ;     plat. 

81,  82 
cut'-off  19 
€tty-a-ho'ga  R.  73 
Cuzco  (cus'co)  110 
cy'clone  26,  27,  54,  114 
Oy'priis  113 
czar  133 
Dallas  83 
Da-mas'cus  137 
Dan'ish :  see  Denmark 
Dan'ube  126 
Dar-da-n61?eg'  132 
Dar'ling  R.  151 
Dav'en-port  76 
Daw'son  City  95,  91 
day  6,  23 
Day'ton  73 
DSad'wood  77 
de-gree'  7 

Dek'kan  114,  138,  139 
DSl-a-go'a  Bay  149 
Del'a-ware  71;    Bay    50, 

68;  R.  50,  68,  70 
Delhi  (dSl'le)  139 
del'ca  18,  19 


E'bro  129 

e-clipse'  5 

Ec-ua-dor'  110,  108 

Ed'in-burgh  (-bur-ro)  124 

E'gypt  147 

El'ba  130 

Elbe  124 

El-burz'  114 

el'e-phants  31,  38,  116, 
139,  148 

el-e-va'tion  9,  45 

El'gin  74 

El  Pa'so  61 

En 'gland  (in'-),  Eng'lish 
122-124,  47,  49,  107,  119, 
138 ;  see  Great  Britain 

e-qua'tor  7 

e-qua-to'ri-al  calms  26,  27 

e'qui-nox  23 

E'rie  71 

Erie  Canal  68,  69 

e-ro'sion  (-zhun)  12-22 

e-rup'tion  12 

Erz'ge-bir-ge  (erts'-)  124 

Es'ki-mog33;  91,  94,  97 

Es'sen  125 

es'tu-a-ry  10 

Et'na,  Mt.  130 

i?u-phra'teg  114 

J5^u-ra'sia  (-shi-a)  9,  17, 
112-143 

-En-ra'sian  (-shi-an)  high- 
land 113 

Eurasian  life  region  29, 
31,  32,  115,  116 

Eu'rope  9,  17,  117-133 

Ev'ang-vilte  73 

e-vap-o-ra'tion  13 

Ev'er-Sst,  Mt.  113 

Ev'er-gladeg  81 

Faflc'land  106 

Fall  line  49 

Fall  River  65 

Far'go  77 

Fa'roe  Is.  125 

fault  11 

fer'ti-li-zers  37 


160 


INDEX. 


161 


Fez  148 

Fi'jl  153 

Finng  126,  133 

fi&rd  (fydrd)  10 

Firth  of  Ldrne  122 

fishing  38,  39,  58,  63,  90, 

91,  93,  95,  97,  120,  142, 

147 
Flem'ish  128 
flood  19 
flood  plain  19 
FISr'ence  130 
F16r'I-da  81,  21 
fSr'gsts  28,  59,  63,  67,  79, 

85,  89,  93,  97,   98,  100, 

105,  115,  116,  120,  138, 

142,  146,  148,  149,   151, 

153 
Fdr-mo'sa  141 
Fort  Dear'born  (-burn)  74 
Fort  Smith  82 
Fort  Snel'ling  76 
Fort  Sum'ter  80 
Fort  Wayne  73 
Fort  Worth  83 
fos'sil  22 
France,  Frgnch  128,  129, 

47,  49,  83,  93,  94,  100, 

107,  108,  111,   119,  120, 
138,  148,  149 

Frank'fort  74 
Franz-Josef    (frants'-yo'- 

zef)  Land  113 
Fra'ger  93 
Fred'er-ic-ton  94 
frSsh'St  19 
fruit  37,  38,  79,  89,  98,  99, 

100,  109,  120,  137,  138, 

147,  153 
Fu-ji-ya'ma  141 
GS-lap'a-gos  110 
Gal'ves-ton  83 
Gal'way  Bay  122 
Gan'geg  139 
Qa-ronne'  128 
Gen-e-see'  69 
Ge-n§'va  128 
GIn'o-a  130 
Gedrge'town  111 
Ge6r'gi-a  80 
Ger'tna-ny,  Ger'man  124, 

125,  ~57,    108,    119,    120, 

126,  148,  149,  153 

g ey'ser  14,  86,  97,  153 
GA6nt  128 
Gi-bral'tar  113 
Gila  (he'la)  87 
Gi-r6Nde'  (zhe-)  128 
gla'cier  (-sher)  19,  20,  91, 

93,  95,  103,  113,  114,  153 
Glas'gow  123 
Glouces'ter  65 
goats   38,    116,    120,    137, 

138,  147,  149 
Go'bi  141 
gold  15,  40,  59,  85,  89,  91, 

93,  98, 108,  121, 136,  140, 

141,  142,  149,  152,  153 
Gotfc'en-burg  126 
g6v'ern-ment  35,  36,  55, 

108,  120,  136 

grain  37 
ram'pi-an  Mts.  122 

Grand  Canal  140 

Grand  Forks  77 

Grand  Rap' ids  75 

grapes  38,  89,  120 

grav'i-ty  5,  20 

Great  Bar'ri-er  21,  151 

Great  Ba'sin  52,  53 

Great  Brit'ain  122-124, 47, 
49,  57,  93-95,  99,  100, 
108,  111,  119,  120,  126, 
129,  137-139,  141,  142, 
147,  148,  149,  152,  153 

Great  Falls  86 

Great  Lakes  68 

Great  Plains  52;  38 

Great  Powers  120 

Great  Salt  Lake  53 

Great  Valley  50,  72 

Greece,  Gre'cian  (shan) 
132,  120,  137 

Greenland  35,  97,  47 

Green  Mts.  64 

Green  'vilte  80 

Green'wich  (greVIj)  7 


ground  water  14,  15 
Gua-dai-qui-vir'  (-kg-)  130 
Gua-de-lupe'  100 
Gua-di-a'na  129 
G«a-te-ma'la  99 
Guay-a-quil'  (-kel')  110 
Guay'mas  99 
GttJ-a'na  111,  103 
Ginn'ea,  G.  145 
gulf  10 
Gulf  plain  51 
Gulf  Stream  27 
Guth'rie  83 
Hague  125 
Hai-da-ra'bad'  139 
Hai'ti  100 
Hal'i-fax  94,  95 
Ham'burg  124,  125 
Har'lem  R.  69 
Har'ris-burg  71 
Hart'ford  65 
Ha-van'a  100 
Ha'ver-/iill  65 
Havre  129 
Ha-wal'i  153 
Ha-wai'ian  (-yan)  Is.  153 
heat  belt  24,  25 
heat  equator  25 
HSb'ri-deg  122 
Hel'e-na  86 
hem'I-sphere  7,  9 
Her-at'  138 
herding  38, 58,  85,  108, 120, 

149,  152 
high'land  10,  24,  27,  45 
Hlm-a'la-ya  113,  29 
Hin'du  Kush  114 
Hin'dug  33,  138,  111,  152 
Hin-dii'-stan'  138,  139 
Ho-ang'  140 
hoar'frost  14 
Ho'bart  153 
Ho'bo-ken  71 
hogs  38,  58,  67,  79,  116, 

120,  142 
HSl'land  125 
Hol's'ton  R.  72 
Hol'yoke  65,  64 
HSn'do  141 
Hon-du'ras  99 
Hdng-kdng'  141 
H6-no-lu'lu  153 
Hood,  Mt.  53,  90 
horses  38,  58,  74,  79,  97, 

98,   107,   116,   136,   138, 

141,  147,  149 
Hot  Springs  82 
HpM-sa-tSn'ic  63 
Hous'ton  83 
Ho'vag  149 

Hiid'son  B.  93 ;  R.  68,  69 
Hull  124 
Hum'boWt  87 
Hun'ga-ry  126 
Hunt'ing-ton  72 
Hunts'vilte  81 
Hu'ron,  L.  74 
ice' berg  19 
Ice'land  95,  97,  47 
Pda-ho  86 
Il-U-noi«'   (or  -noig')  73, 

74,  38 
In'cag  107,  110 
iE'di-a  138,  139,-116,  117, 

140 
In-di-an'a  73 
In-di-an-ap'o-lis  73 
In'di-an  Ocean  9,  27 
In'di-ang  33,  34,  35,  47,  49, 

83,  85,  87,  91,  94,  98,  99, 

107,  108 
Indian  Ter.  83 
In'do-Chi'na  140,  136 
In'dus  138 
inlet  15 
In-ter-na'tion-al  date  line 

61 
I'6-wa  76 

Iquique  (e-ke'ka)  110 
I-ran'  113 
I-ra-wa'di  140 
Ire'land,  I'rish  122-124,  57 
Ir-kutsk'  136 
iron  "15,  35,  40,  59,  70,  79, 

100,  121,  136,  139-142. 
ir-ri-ga'tion  37, 85,  89, 105, 

107,  120,  138,  139,  141 


is'land  9,  10 

i' so-th  erm  24 

Is-pa-han'  138 

isWt'mus  9 

It'a-ly,    I-tal'ian    (-yan) 

130,  119,  120,  149 
Ith'a-ca  69 
Jack'son  81 
Jack'son-vilte  81 
Ja-mat'ca  100 
James  R.  72 
Ja-pan',  Jap-a-nese'  141, 

142,  91,  95,  136,  153 
Ja'va  142 
Jef 'fer-son  City  76 
Jer'gey  City  71 
Je-ru'sa-lem  137 
jet'ty  83 
Jews  33,  36,  132,  133,  136, 

137,  146,  147 
Jo-han'nes-burg  (yo-)  149 
J6'li-6t  74 

Ju-an'  (hu-)  de  Fu'ca  53 
Ju-neau'  (-no')  91 
jun/gle  116 
Ju'ra  Mts.  128 
Ju-ru'/m  (zhu-)  108 
Jut'land  125" 
Ka'bul  138 
kal'ge'r  124 
Ka-la-ha'rii  146 
Kam-chat'ka  113,  114 
Ka-na'wfca  51,  72 
Kan-da-har'  138 
Kan'sas  77,  51 
Kansas  City  77 
Ka'ra  113 

Ka-ra-ko'ram  Mts.  140 
Kas-kas'ki-a  R.  73 
Ka-taft'din,  Mt.  63 
Kauai  (kou-i'e)  153 
Ka-war'  148 
Ka-zan'  R.  93 
Ke'ni-a,  Mt.  145 
Ken-we-beo'  R.  63 
Ken-tuck'y  74 
kettle  hill  51 
key  81 

Key  West  81 
kftan  138 
KAar-kdT  133 
kAe-dive'  147 
KAel-at'  138 
KAin-g/mn'  114 
KM'vft  137 
Ki-ef  133 
Kil-i-man-ja-ro'  145 
Kim'ber-ley  149 
king  36 

Kio'len  (kye'-)  114, 
KIr-gMz'  Steppe  137 
Kiushu  (kyu-shyu')  141 
KloVdike  95,  91  " 
JTndx'vilfe  82 
Kdn'go  145 
Kongo  State  148 
Koot'e-nai  85 
K6r-do-fan'  147 
K6-re'a  141,  136 
KuSn-lun'    113 
Ku-ro-shi'wo  28 
Kyo'to  142 
Lab-ra-d6r'  95,  93 
La  Cr6s*e'  75 
Lad'6-ga  115 
la-goon'  21 
La  Guai'ra  111 
lake  15,  20 
Lake  plains  51 
land  9,  24 
Lan'sing  74 
La  Paz'  (path')  110 
Lapps  126,  133 
L&r'a-mie  86 
Las'sa  141 
Las'sens.  Peak  53 
Las  Ve'gas  87 
Lat'ing  119 
lat'i-tude  7 

Lau-r6n'tian        (-she-an) 
;   glacier  20,  50,  51,  66 
Laurentian  plateau  45,  93 
la'va  12,  22 
Law'rence  65 
lead  67,  85,  98,  121 
LSad'vilJe  87,  86 
L5av'gn-worth  77 


Leeds  123 
Leip'zig  (-tslK)  125 
Le'na  114,  115 
lgv'ee  51 
Lew'is-ton  64 
Lex'ing-ton  74 
Li-be'ri-a  148 
LIb'y-an  Desert  147 
Liech'ten-stein  (leK'-)  126 
LI-ege'  (azh')  128 
life  regions  29-32 
Li 'ma  110 

lime'stone  15,  22,  40 
Lim-po'po  145  , 

Linc'6in  77 
Lip'a-ri  Is.  130 
Lig'bon  130 
Li«le  129 
Little  Rock  82 
LIv'er-pool  123 
Ka'mag  30,  38,  107 
1/a'nog  28,  105 
Lo'gan  87 
LoiriT(lwar)  128 
Lom'bar-dv  130 
L6n'd6n  12"3,  36 
Long  Island  50,  69 
Long  Island  Sound  65 
lon'g^-tude  7 
Los  AS'gel-Ss  (-h61-)  91 
LoM-i-gi-a'na  82,  83 
Low'Is-viUe  (or  -is-)  74 
Low'ell  65 
low'land  10,  24,  45 
Lu'beck  124    ' 
Luck'now  139 
lum'ber-ing  39,  58,  59,  63, 

67,  75,  79,  85,  89,  109, 

120,  140,  142,  151,  153 
Lu-ray'  72,  15 
Lux'§m-burg  124 
Lu-zon'  142 
Lynch 'burg  72 
Lynn  65 
Ly'ong  129 
Ma-ca'6  135 
Mac-k6n'z«'e  46 
Mack'i-nac,  Str.  74 
Ma'con  80 
MSd-a-g&s'car  149 
Ma-dei^ra  Is.  130 
Ma-dei'ra  R.  104 
Mad'i-son  75 
Ma-dras'  139 
Ma-drid'  130 
Mag-da-le'na  105 
Ma-gel'ian  Str.  103 
Main  R.  124 
Maine  63,  64,  10,  21 
Ma-kas'sar,  Str.  142 
Mal'a-ga  130 
Ma-lay'  penin.  140 
Ma-layg'  33,  142,  149,  152, 

153 
Mam'moth  Cave  74 
Ma-na'gua  99 
Man'ches-ter,    Eng.    123 ; 

N.  H.  64 
Man-chu'ri-a  141 
Man-chug'  141 
Man'da-lay  140 
Man-hat' (an  I.  69 
Ma-ni'ia  142 
Man-I-to-ba'  94 
man-u-fac'tur-ing  41,  59, 

63,   68,  79,  90,  98,  121, 

123,  139,  142,  152 
Ma'o-rig  153 
Ma-ra-e«i'bo  111 
Ma-ra-jo'  (-zho')  104 
Ma-ran-ha'o  (-ya'oN)  109 
Mar'mo-ra  132 
Mar-seifleg'  129 
Mar-ta-ban',  G.  140 
Mar'thag  VIne'yard  64 
Mar-H-nique'  (-nek')  100 
Ma'ry-land  (m6r'-)  71,  11 
MSs-kat'  137 

Mas-sa-chu' setts  64,  65,  41 
Mat-a-g6r'da  B.  83 
Maui  (mou'e)  153 
Mau-mee'  R.  72 
Mau-ri'ti-us  (-rish'i-)  149 
McKin'ley,  Mt.  45 
Mec'ca  137 

Me-del-lin'  (-thSl-y6n' )  111 
Mld-I-ter-ra'ne-an  9 


Me-kSng'  140 
Mel 'bourne  152 
Mel'vilte,  93 
Mem'phis  82 
Me-nam'  140 
Me-n8m'I-nee  R.  75 
Mer'I-den  65 
me-rid'i-an  7 
Me-rid'i-an  81 
Mer'ri-mac  R.  63 
Mes-o-po-ta'ml-a  113, 117 
Mex'I-co  96-99,  47,  49  83 
Mi-am'i  73 
Mich'I-gan  74,  75 
Middle  States  68 
Mil'an  130 
Mil-wau'kee  75 
mining  40,  59,  67,  68,  79, 

85,  89,  93,  98,  108,  121, 

136,  141,  142,  149,   152, 

153 
Min-me-ap'o-lis  76 
Wan-Mg-so'ta  76 
Mi-que-16N'  (-ke-)  94 
mirl33 
Mla-sia-sip'pi  81;   R.    15, 

46,  51,  68,  76,  82,  83 
Mls-sott'ri  76;  R.  46,  68 
Mitch' ell,  Mt.  45 
Mo-bile'  81 

Moero  (mwa'ro),  L.  145 
Mo-ham 'med-an-Igm     36, 

120,  136,  147 
Mo'hawk  R.  69 
Mo-line'  76 

Mol-len'do  (-yen'-)  110 
M6-luc'cag  142 
M5n'a-c6  129 
mSn'ar«ft-y  36 
M5n-g6'H-a  141,  113 
Mon-go'11-ang  33,  35 
Mon'golg  141 
Mon-o-moy'  Point  64 
M6-n5n-ga-he'la  R.  70 
Mon-ro'vi-a  148 
m5n-soon'  26 
Mdn-ta'na  85,  86,  38,  40 
M6n«  BlaNC  128 
M6n«  Qe-nis'  129,  130 
M6n-te-ne'gro  132,  120 
M6n-te-vi-de'6  109 
Mont-g6m'er-y  81 
M5nt-pe'H-er  64 
Mont-re-al'  94,  95 
Moorg  147 
Moose'head  L.  63 
M6r'ay  Firth  122 
M6r'm6ns  87 
M6-r5c'co  147,  148 
MSs'cok;  133,  36 
moun'tain  11 
M6-zam-bique'  (-bek')145 
Muk-den'  141 
Mu'ni-eft  125 
Mur'ray  151 
Mus-co'gee  83 
Mus-kin'gum  R.  72 
Nantes"l28 
Nan-tuck'et  64 
Na'pleg  130 
N&r-ra-g5n'sett  B.  65 
Nash'u-a  64 
Nash'viUe  82 
Natch 'ez  81 
natural  bridge  15,  72 
natural  gas  22 
Ne-bras'ka  77 
ne'groeg  34.  35, 49,  79, 100, 

107,  108,  148 
Nel'son  R.  46 
Ne-pai'  139 
Nlth'er-landg     125,     100, 

107,   111,  119,  120,  142, 

153 
Neuse  80 
Ne-v&'da  87 
New  Al'ba-ny  73 
New'ark  71 
New  Bed'ford  65 
New'bern  80 
New  Brit'ain  65 
New  Brung'wick  94 
New'cas-tte  124 
New  England  62-65,  66 
New'found-land  95 
Newfoundland  Banks  39 
New  Gua-te-ma'la  99 


New  Guln'ea  153,  34 
New  Hamp'shire  64 
New  Ha'ven  65 
New  Jer'gey  71,  21,  69 
New  Mex'I-co  87 
New  Or'le-ang  82,  83 
New'port,  Ky.  74;   R.  L 

65,  63 
Newport  News  72 
New  South  Waleg  152 
New  York  Bay  50,  68 
New  York   (city)  69,  43, 

57 
New  York  (state)  68,  69, 

11,  18,  40 
New  Zea'land  153 
Nga'mi,  L.  145 
Nl-ag'a-ra  68,  69 
Ni-ca-ra'gua  99 
Ni'ger  145 
Nile  17,  145,  147 
nobles  36 
Nor'foZk  72 
Nor'mang  123 
north  6 
North    A-mer'I-ca  9,   17, 

44-101 
North  American  life  re^ 

gion  29,  31,  32,  46,  47 
North  Car-o-li'na  80 
North  Da-ko'ta  77 
Northeastern  Sec,  61-65 
Northern  Section  61,66-77 
North'men  47 
North  Star  6 
Northwestern  valleys,  53 
Nor'way,      Nor-we'gl-an 

125,  126,  10,  119,  120 
No'va  Sco'tia  (-shi-a)  94 
No'va  Zem'bla  113 
Nu'W-a  147 
Nueces  (nwa'ses)  51 
Ny-as'sa  (ne-)  145 
O-a'hu  153 
Oak'land  91 
q'a-sis  116 
Ob  114,  115 
6'cean  (-shan)  9,  32 
ocean  currents  27,  28 
6-ce-an'ic    (-she-)    island 

10,  12,  32 
Oc-mul'gee  80 
O-co'nee  80 
O'der  124 
O-des'sa  133 
Og'den  87 
O-gee'chee  80 
O-hi'o  72,  73 ;  R.  68,  70, 

73,  74 
O-ke-fi-no'kee  Swamp  80 
O-KAotsk',  Sea  113 
Ok-ia-ho'ma  83 
O-lym'pi-a  90 
O'ma-ha  77 
0-man'"l37 
One'ga  115 
Onei'da  L.  68 
On-ta'ri-o  94 
ooze  22 
O-por'to  130 
O-ran'  148 
Or'ange  145 
Orange  Free  State  149 
or' bit  23 
ore  35,  40 
Or'e-gon  90 
0-ri-6n'tal  life  region  29, 

31,  116 
O-ri-nd'co  105,  104 
O-ri-za'ba  (-tha'-l  45,  97 
Ork'ney  Is.  122 
O'ga-ka  142 
Osh'kfish  75 
Os-we'go  R.  68 
Ot'ta-wa  94 
outlet  15 
ox'bow  loop  19 
oys'ters  39,  58,  65,  67,  71, 

120 
O-zark'  51,  67,  79 
Pa-cif'ic  9,  27 
Pacific  coast  region  53 
Pacific  Section  61,  88-91 
pa'gang  36 
Pa-ler'mo  130 
Pa-mir'  113 
Pam'li-co  Sound  80 


162 


INDEX. 


pam'pag  28,  105 
Fan-a-ma'  99 
Pap'u-an  34 
Pa-ra"'109;  B.  104 
Pa-ra-guay'  109,  108 
par'al-lel  7 
Par-a-mar'1-bo  111 
Pa-ra-na'  105 
Par'Is  129 
Par'kerg-burg  72 
parks  52 

Par'lla-ment  123,  94 
Pa-taps'co  B.  71 
Pat'er-son  71 
Paw-tuek'et  65 
peat  22 
Pe-chi-li'  140 
Pe'cos  B.  87 
Pe-dee'  B.  80 
Pe-king'  141 
Pem-a-dum'cook  L.  63 
Pem'ba  119 
pe'ne-plain  18 
pen-in'su-la  11 
Pen'nlne  Chain  122 
Penn-syl-va'nl-a    70,    71, 

40,  50,  69 
Pe-nob'scot  63 
Pen-sa-co'la  81 
Pe-6'ri-a  74 
Per-di'do  B.  81 
Per-nam-bu'co  109 
Per'sia  (-slil-a),  Persians 

137,  138,  33 
Perth  152 

Pe-ru',    Pe-ru'vi-an    110, 

108 
Pe'terg-burg  72 
pe-tro'le-um  22,  59,  110, 

133  137 
Phil-a-del'phi-a  70 
Phil'Ip-pIne  Is.  142 
Phoe'nix  (fe'-)  87 
Pied'mSnt  region  49,  50 
Pierre  77 
Pikes  Peak  86 
Pil-oo-may'6  105 
Pln'dns  119 
Pine  Bluff  82 
Pitts'burg  70 
Pla'ta  105 
pla-teau'  (-to')  9 
Plateau  Section  61,  84-87 
riiiUe  B.  77 
P6  130 

Point  Bar'rotc  44 
Point  Gral-li'na8  (-ye'-)  103 
po'lar  circle  24 
pole  6 
pond  15 

P8nt-char-train'  83 
Pope  119 

Po-po'c&t-e-pe-tl  96 
pop-u-la'tion  34,  57,  107, 

117,  135,  157 
por'tage  46 
Port  E-Hz'a-beth  149 
Port'land,   Me.   63;   Ore. 

90 
Por'to  A-le'gre  109 
Por'to  Bi'co  49, 100 
Port  Sii-M'  147 
Ports'mouth  64 
Por'tu-gal,     Por'tu-gwege 

129,  130,   107,  108,  119, 

138,  148,  149,  153 
Pd-to'mac  51,  68,  71,  72 
Po-to'slllO 

PoM^fe-keep'sle  (-kip'-)  67 
Prague  126 

"  -ai'rie  28 
Prairie  plains  51 

?reg'i-dent  36,  55 
te-tor'I-a  149 
prevailing  westerlies  26 
Pri-bi-lof7  (-16V)  91 

Prime  me-rid'i-an  7 
rince  Ed'ward  I.  94 
prom'on-to-ry  11,  10 
Prov'i-dence  65 
Pro'vo  City  87 
Prussia  (prush'a.)  124 
Pruth  133 


public  land  55 

Pueb'la  98 

Pugb'16  86,  87 

Pu'get  53,  89,  90 

Pun'tS  A-re'nas  109 

Pu'rus  108  " 

Py'r'a-mid  L.  87 

Pyr'e-neeg  114 

Que-beV  94 

Queen  Char'lotte  Is.  93 

Queens  land  152 

Qum'cy  f-zi)  74 

Qui'to  (ke'-)  110 

race  33,  34 

Ba-cine'  75 

railroads  42,  60,  61,  95, 98, 

108,  121,  136,   139,  142, 

149  152 
rain  14,  26,  27,  54,  104, 114 
Eai'nier,  Mt.  53,  89 
Ea'leigh  (-la)  80 
range  11 

Bange'ley  Lakes  63 
Ban-goon'  140 
rap 'ids  18 
Eead'ing  70 

Bed  E.  of  the  North  76,  77 
Bei€7js'tiig  124 
Bei'ki-a-vik  97 
re-li'gion  36 
Be'no  87 
re-pub'lie  36 
reg-er-va'tion  85 
Be-un'ion  (-yun)  149 
rev-o-lu'tion  23 
E/iine  124 

E/iodc  Is'land  65,  63 
Rhone  128 
rice  37,  79,  98,  120,  138- 

142,  147-149 
Eich'mond  72 
Ei'ga  133 
Eii'o  de  Ja-ne'i-ro  (zha-) 

108,  109 
Ei'o  de  la  Pla'ta  105 
Ei'o  Gran'de  46 
Bi'o  Ne'gro  104 
riv'er  15 
E6-a-noke'  B.  72 
BSch'es-ter  69 
Bock'ford  74 
Bock  Island  76 
rock  layers  11,  22 
Bock  Springs  86 
Eocky     Mountain    high- 
land 45,  52,  53,  93,  97 
Eocky  Mts.  45,  52,  85,  93 
Borne,    Bo'man  130,    36, 

119 
E6-sa'ri-6  109 
ro-ta'tion  6 
B5t'ter-dam  125 
EoM-ma'ni-a  132,  120 
ri'bber  39,  108,  142,  148 
Bu'pert  B.  93 
Eussia  (rfish'a)   133,  136, 

137,  47,  49,  120,  122,  141 
Eut'land  64 
rye  38,  120 
Sa-bine'  E.  51 
Sa'co  B.  63 
Sac-ra-men'to  91 
Sag'i-naw  75 
Sa-ha'ra  148 
Sa'i-gon  140 
St.  Al'bang(al'-)64 
St.  An'tfco-ny,  Falls  76 
St.  Au'giis-tine  81 
St.  Clair,  L.  74 
St.  Croix  E.  63,  75 
St.  E-tl-finne'  (s&Nt-)  129 
St.  QoUh&Td'  (sSn-)  128, 

130 
St.  He-le'na  145 
St.  Hel'eng,  Mt.  53 
St.  John  94,  95 
St.  Johns,  95 
St.  Jo'seph  77 
St.  Law'rence  18,  46,  68 
St.  Lom'Is  (or  -I*)  76,  77 
St.  Ma'ryg  Canal  75 
St.  Paul  76 
St.  Pe'terg-burg  133 


St.  Pi-erre'  (s&n-)  94 

Sa-lft'do  (-flio)  E.  105 

Sa'lem,  Mass.  65 ;  Ore.  90 

Sa-16-m'ki  132 

salt  69,  75,  121,  148 

Salt  Lake  City  87 

salt  lick  82 

Sal-va-dor'  99 

Sal-wgn'  114 

Sa-mp'a  153 

San  An-to'nI-6  83 

San  BSr-nar-di'no  90 

sand  bank  18,  21 

sand  bar  18,  21 

San  Dii-e'go  91 

sandy  hook  21 

San    Fran-cis'co   90,   91; 

B.  53,  89 
San'gre  de  Cris'to  8G 
San   Joaquin  (ho-a  ken') 

90 
San  Jo-se'  (ho-),  Cal.  91 ; 

Costa  Eica  99 
SanJu-an'  (hu-)  100 
San  Lu-is'  Park  86 
San  Mari'no  130 
SSn  Sal-va-dor'  99 
San'ta  Fe'  87 
San-tee'  E.  80 
San-fi-ii'go  109 
San-ti'-a'go  de  Cu'ba  100 
San'to  D6-min'g'6  100 
San'tos  108 

Sao  (soun)  Fran-^Is'co  105 
Sao  Paulo  (soun  pou'16) 

108 
Sar-dln'I-a  130 
Sas-katch'e-wan  93,  94 
sav'a-geg  34,  35,  36 
sa-vfin'na  105 
Sa-van'xa/(  80 
Sax'ong  119 
Sc&n-di-na'vl-an     glacier 

20;penin.  113 
S«/ie-nec'ta-dy  (-dg)  67 
Se/mt/l'kilfE.  70 
Sci-o'to  E.  73 
ScSt'land  122-124 
Seran'ton  70 
scrub  151 
sea  9,  24,  27 
sea'gong  23 
Se-at'<le90 
Se-ba'go  L.  63 
sed'i-ment  18,  22 
See'land  125 
Seine  128 
Sgl'ma  81 
Sem'I-ndleg  83 
SSm-It'ic  33 
S8n'e-ca  L.  68 
Se-owl'  141 
Serv'vl-a  132,  120 
Sev'ern  E.  122 
Sev'il^e  (or  se-vll')  130 
shaft  138 
Shang-ha'i  141 
Sha'ri  E.  145 
Shas'ta,  Mt.  12,  53,  89 
sheep  38,  58,  72,  79,  85,  89, 

97,  98, 107,  116,  120,  137, 

138,  141,  147-153 
Sheffield  124 
sheik  137 
ShSt'land  Is.  122 
Shi-ko'ku  141 
Sho-sho'ne  Eange  86 
shott  146 
Shreve'port  83 
Si  140 
Si-am'  140 
Si-be  'ri-a  136,  137 
SIc'I-ly  130 
si-de're-al  day  6 
SJd'ra,  G.  145 
Si-§r'ra  de  Gua-dar-ra'ma 

(-ftar-)"l29 
Si-8r'ra  Le-6'ne  148 
Si-Sr'ra  Ma'dre  97 
Si-Sr'ra  M6-re'na  129 
Si-gr'ra  Ne-va'da  53,  89 
silk  128,  130,  137,  140,  141 
sil'vag  105 


silver  15,  40,  59,  85,  93,  98, 
108,  121,  140-142,  152 

Sin-ga-pore'  140 

sink  hole  15 

Sioux  City  76 

Sioux  Falls  77 

Sl-'sai'  98 

Sit'ka  91 

Skee'na  93 

Slavg  120,  132,  133 

slope  17 

Smyr'na  (smer'-)  137 

Snake  B.  52 

snow  14,  19,  26 

S6-fi'a  132 

soil  13 

Sol'o-mon  Is.  153 

Sol'way  Firth  122 

S6-ma'li  Land  144 

Soo  Canal  75 

Sound  valley   90 

source  15 

South  African  Bepublic 
149 

South  A-mSr'I-ca  9,  17, 
102-111 

South  American  life  re- 
gion 29,  30,  31,  47,  105, 
107 

South  Aus-tra'U-a  152 

South  Bend  73 

South  Car-o-li'na  80 

South  Da-ko'ta  77,  52 

Southern  Section  61,  78- 
83 

South  O'ma-ha  77 

Spain,  Span'ish,  Span'- 
iards  (-yerdg)  129,  130, 
47,  49,  83,  87,  98,  99,  100, 

107,  108,  119,  142 
Spar'tan-burg  80 
spit  21~ 

Spitz-berg'en  113 
Spo-kSne'  90 

sponges  39,  100,  120,  147 
spring  14 ;  (season)  23 
Spring' field,  111.74;  Mass. 

65;  Mo.  77;  O.  73 
sta-iac'tite  15 
sta-lag'mite  15 
standard  time  61 
Sta-no-voi'  114 
state  55 
Stat'en  I.  69 
stSppe  28,  115 
Stew'art  I.  153 
Stik-Ine'  E.  93 
StSck'holm  126 
StSek'ton  91 
storm  center  54 
strait  9 

Straits  Settlements  140 
Strass'burg  (-burK)  128 
streams  17 
Str5m'bo-li  130 
Su'cre  110 
Sii-dan'  148 
Svi-ez'  113;  Canal  147 
sugar  38,  79,  82.  98, 99, 100, 

108,  124,   140,  142,  147, 
148,  149,  153 

Su-lai-man'  114 
sul'tan  132,  147,  149 
Su-lu?  Sea  142 
Su-ma'tra  142 
summer  23,  25 
sunrise  and  sunset  line  6 
Su-pe'rI-or  (-er)  75,  76 ;  L. 

59 
Sus-que-han'na  51,  68 
Sut'lfij  138 
Su-wa'nee  81 
Swe'den  125,  126,  100, 119, 

120 
Swit'zer-land  126, 128, 19, 

119,  120 
Syd'ney  152 
Syr'a-cuse  69 
system'!  1,  15 
Ta-briz'  138 
Ta-co'ma  90 
Ta-c5n'ic  Mts.  64 
Ta'gus  129 


Taft-16-qutt/('  83 

Ta-hoe',  L.  87 

Tal'ca  109 

Tai-ia-h&s'see  81 

ta'lus  13 

Tam'pa  81 

Ta-na'na-rl-vo'  149 

Tan-gan-yi'ka  145 

Ta-pa'jds  (-zhos)  108 

Tash-kend'  137 

T&g-ma'nl-a  152,  153 

Tau'de-ni  (tou'-)  148 

Tattn'ton  62 

Tchad  146 

tea  38,  139,  140,  141 

Te-gu-iji'-gai'pa  99 

Te-heran'  138 

T6n-nes-see'  81,  82,  11 

ter'mi-nal  mo-raine'  20 

ter'ra-9eg  14,  53 

T6r're  Haute'  (hot')  73 

tgr'ri-to-ry  55 

Tex'as  83 

Thames  (tgmz)  122        j 

TM-an'  Shan  113 

TI-bet'  141,  113 

tide  20-21 

Tide'wa-ter  region  49,  50 

Ti-6n'tsin  141 

Ti-er'ra  del  Fue'go  1P3 

Tif-lis'  137 

Ti'gris  114 

Ti-mor'  153 

tin  142,  121,  140,  152,  153 

TIt-i-ca'ca  103,  110 

Ti-u-mSn'  136 

to-bac'co  30,  38,  58,   72, 

98, 100,  108, 137,  141,  148 
T6-can-tins'  104 
To'kyo  (-ke-6)  142 
T6-le'do  73 
Tom-big'bee  51 
Ton'ga  Is.  153 
Ton-kin'  140 
T6-pe'ka  77 
T6-r6Vto  94 
trade  winds  25,  26,  27 
Trans-cau-ca'sia  137 
Trans-vaal'  149 
Tran-syl-va'nI-an  Alps  119 
Treb'i-z5nd  137 
Tren'ton  71 
Tri-Sste'  126 
Trin-I-dad'  100 
Trip'o-U  147 
trop'ic  24 

tropical  calms  26,  27 
Troy  69 
Tuc-son'  87 
Tu-cu-man'  109 
tiin'dra  28 
Tu'nis  147,  148 
Tu'rin  130 

Tur'kes-tan'  137,  141 
Tur'key,  Turks  132,  137, 

120,  138,  147 
Tyne  E.  122 
type  33,  34 
TyrVAene  130 
U'na-ka  Mts.  80 
United  Kingdom  122-124 
United   States  49-91,  37, 

42,  95,  98,  108,  109,  119, 

141 
up-heav'al  9-12 
U'ral  Mts.  114,  119,  133; 

B.  115 
U-ru-guay'  109,  108 
U'taft  (or  -ta)  87,  11,53 
U'tl-ca69 
Va-len'cia  (-shl-a),  Spain 

130;  Venez.  Ill 
val'ley  10,  17 
Vai-pa-rai'so  110 
Van-cow'ver  95;  I.  93 
va'por  13 

veg-e-ta'tion  regions  28 
vein  15 
veldt  149 
Ven-e-zue'la  111,  100,  104, 

108~ 
Ven'Ice  130 
Ve'rft  Cruz  (cms)  98 


Ver-mont'  64 
VS-suM-us  130,  12 
Vicks'burg  81 
Vic-to'ri-a  95;  Aust.  152 
Victoria  Falls  145 
Vl-6n'na  126 
Vik'ings  119 
Vir-gin'I-a  72,  15 
Virginia  City  87 
Vis'tu-!a  119 
Vla-di-vos-tok'  136 
vol-can'ic  cone  12 
vol-ca'no  12,   53,   97,  99, 

103,  114,  141,  142,  153 
Vol'ga  115 
Vosges  (vozh)  124 
Vul-ca'no  130 
Wa'bash  73 
Wa'co  83 
wad'y  146 
Waleg  122-124 
WaZk'er  L.  87 
Wiir'saw  133 
Wa'satch  87 
Wash  122 
JVash'ing-ton    (city)    55, 

71,    72;     Mt.     45,     64; 

(state)  90,  38,  53 
Wat'er-bur-y  (-ber-)  65 
water  gap  50,  51 
wave  20,  21 
wealth  60,  121.  159 
w6ath'er-ing  13 
Wel'tend  Canal  68 
Wel'Hng-ton  153 
Wen'ner  (v6n'-)  125 
We'ger  (va'-)  124 
West  Central  States  75 
Western  Aus-tra'li-a  152 
Western  Continent  9-11 
West  In'dieg  99,  100,  47, 

49,69 
West  Point  69 
West  Vir-gin'i-a  72 
Wet'ter  (vet'-)  125 
wheat  37,  58,  67,  89,  93, 

108,   120,   133,   137-141, 

147,  148,  149,  152 
Wheel 'ing  72 
White  Mts.  64 
Wich'I-ta  77 
Wilkes'bar-re  (-1)  67 
WiWa'metfe  B.  90 
Wil'ming-ton,    Del.     71; 

N.  C.  80 
wind  13,  25,  26,  27 
Win-ne-pe-sau'kee  63 
Win'ni-peg  94 
Wi-no'na  76 
Win'ston  80 
winter  23,  25 
Wis-con'sin  75 
Woon-sock'et  65 
Worces'ter  65 
fTran'gSll  113 
Wy-6'ming  86,  14,  15,  45, 

52 
Xin-gu'  (shen-)  108 
Ya-blo-noi'  114 
Y&d'kin  80 

Yang'tze  114,  115,  140 
Ya-pu'ra  104 
Ya-zoo'  81 
year  23 

Yel'ioic-stone  85 
Yellowstone         National 

Park  86,  15 
Y6n-i-se'i  114,  115 
Yes 'so  141 
Yo-ko-ha'ma  142 
Y6-sem'!-te  89 
Yoiingg'town  73 
Yu-ca-tan'  97 
Yu'kon  95  ;  B.  46 
Za'gros  Mts.  114 
Zam-be'zi  (-ze)  145 
Zan'zl-bar  149 
ze'nith  6 
zinc  67,  121,  124 
zone  24 

Zurich  (tsii'riK)  128 
Zuyder  Zee  (zoi'der  za) 

125 


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SCALE  OF  MILES 

6       16      20      3ii      S      i>o      ^      :?o      35      5©^     I5o 

NOTE:  Railroads  appear  in  red;  important  TruntcLtnes 
are  shown  heavier  than  others.  Isotherms  appear  in  brown; 
Mean  Annual  Fahrenheit. 


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Time  when  Noon   5.52  A.M 
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VIII 


Time  when  Noon  at  Greenwich 


3.28  A.M. 


t rom65°  116         Green  wich7  0" 


Time  when  Noon  at  Greenwich    4.08  A.M. 
118 


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L.L.FOATEI.  ENS*.,  H.T. 


XXIV 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

Position,  Boundaries,  and  Extent.  In  what  section  of  the  United 
States  is  California  ?  What  state  bounds  it  on  the  north  ?  What  state 
and  territory  bound  it  on  the  east  ?  What  peninsula  borders  it  on  the 
south  ?  To  what  country  does  this  peninsula  belong  ?  What  forms  the 
western  boundary  of  California  ? 

The  state  extends  from  32°  30'  to  42°  north  latitude,  a  range  about 
equal  to  that  between  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  Cape  Cod,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  southern  end  of  California  lies  between  114°  80'  and  117°  6', 
and  its  northern  end  between  120°  and  124°  15'  west  longitude.  The  west- 
ernmost point  of  the  state  is  Cape  Mendocino,  in  longitude  124°  25'  W. 

With  the  scale  of  miles  find  the  greatest  length  of  the  state  from 
northwest  to  southeast.  Find  its  width  at  the  northern  and  at  the 
southern  boundary.  Where  is  the  broadest  part  of  the  state  ?  Its  aver- 
age length  is  about  750  miles ;  its  average  width  is  about  200  miles. 

Of  the  three  states  forming  the  Pacific  section  of  the 
Union,  California  is  much  the  largest.  It  occupies  more 
than  one  half  of  our  Pacific  coast  in  that  section.  Its 
area  is  158,360  square  miles.  Only  one  state  in  the  Union 
is  larger.  Which  is  it?  California  is  but  little  smaller 
than  Oregon  and  Washington  united.  It  is  more  than 
three  times  as  large  as  Pennsylvania  or  New  York,  and 
nearly  two  and  a  half  times  as  large  as  all  the  New  Eng- 
land states  combined. 

Coast.  California  has  a  coast  line  of  nearly  1000  miles. 
It  is  longer  than  that  of  any  other  state  except  one.  What 
state  is  that  ?  The  coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  with  but  few 
marked  indentations  or  good  harbors.  The  wind  blows 
almost  constantly  from  the  ocean,  and  the  fogs  makeftnavi- 
gation  along  the  coast  dangerous.  San  Francisco  Bay  is 
50  miles  long,  and  its  greatest  width  is  about  12  miles.  It 
is  entered  through  the  Golden,  Gate,  a  strait  one  mile  wide. 
The  only  landlocked  harbor  north  of  San  Francisco  is 
Humboldt  Bay,  230  miles  distant.  It  is  14  miles  long  and 
from  one  to  four  miles  wide,  and  is  protected  by  headlands 
and  a  fine  system  of  jetties.  San  Diego  Bay,  12  miles  long, 
is  also  completely  landlocked. 

San  Pedro  and  Tomales  bays  also  afford  well-protected  harbors.  An- 
chorages more  or  less  secure  are  found  in  Monterey,  Drakes,  Bodega, 
Trinidad,  and  other  bays. 

Name  the  principal  islands  near  the  coast.  What  channel  separates 
the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  from  the  mainland  ?  The  Farallone  Islands, 
some  30  miles  west  of  San  Francisco,  are  the  home  of  innumerable  sea 
fowl.  On  the  southernmost  of  this  group  is  a  noted  lighthouse.  Its 
light  is  360  feet  above  sea  level.  There  are  many  other  well-known 
lights  on  the  coast. 


Surface.  What  mountain  system  traverses  the  western  part  of  the 
state;  the  eastern  part?  Beginning  at  their  junction  in  the  north, 
describe  the  trend  of  each  of  these  mountain  systems  to  their  place  of 
meeting  in  the  south.  About  how  large  a  portion  of  the  state  do  they 
inclose1?  What  mountains  in  southern  California?  Of  what  great  range 
do  these  seem  to  be  a  continuation  ?  What  parts  of  the  state  appear  to 
have  a  comparatively  level  surface?  Where  is  the  Mohave  Desert? 
Copyright,  1899,  by  American  Book  Company. 


The  variations  of  surface  elevation  in  California  are 
very  remarkable ;  for  here  are  both  the  lowest  and  (if  we 
except  Alaska)  the  highest  lands  in  our  country.  The 
loftiest  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  rise  more  than  14,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  in  some  parts  of  the  Mo- 
have Desert  are  depressions  more  than  300  feet  lower  than 
sea  level.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  state  is  about  2900 
feet. 

A  considerable  portion  of  California  is  literally  sur- 
rounded by  mountain  ranges  —  by  the  Coast  Ranges  on 
the  west  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  east.  Near  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  state,  and  also  in  the  vicinity  of 
Tejon  Pass  in  the  south,  the  spurs  and  foothills  of  these 
two  systems  interlock ;  but  through  most  of  their  length 
the  lines  which  mark  their  chief  watersheds  are  from  100 
to  140  miles  apart.  They  thus  inclose  an  elliptical  basin, 
the  great  central  valley  of  California. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  is  the  grandest  range  of  mountains  in 
our  country.  Its  length  is  about  500  miles  and  its  width 
from  70  to  100  miles.  It  is  highest  and  also  broadest 
toward  the  southern  part  of  its  extent.  Its  eastern  slopes 
are  short  and  steep,  and  for  the  most  part  end  on  the  pla- 
teau of  the  Great  Basin,  more  than  4000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Its  western  slopes,  which  are  cut  by  deep 
canyons,  are  long  and  gradual,  and  descend  to  the  level  of 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys. 

The  Sierra  system  is  mainly  a  continuous  line  with  many  peaks,  the 
highest  of  which  are  always  covered  with  snow.  Nineteen  of  these  peaks 
are  each  10,000  feet  or  more  in  height.  Mount  Whitney,  the  highest,  has 
an  altitude  of  14,522  feet  above  sea  level.  Other  great  elevations  are 
Mounts  Tyndall  (14,038  feet),  Brewer  (13,573  feet),  Lyell  (13,217  feet), 
Dana  (12,992  feet),  and  Castle  Peak  (13,000  feet).  Mount  Shasta,  a  mag- 
nificent snow-clad  volcanic  cone  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  is 
14,380  feet  high.  Lassens  Peak  (10,437  feet)  is  second  in  importance  to 
Mount  Shasta  among  the  extinct  volcanoes  of  northern  California. 
Both  of  these  peaks,  though  often  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  are  more  closely  associated  geologically  with  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, which  stretch  northward  from  them  through  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. Sixty-five  glaciers  from  half  a  mile  to  two  miles  in  length  exist 
in  California,  most  of  them  on  the  north  sides  of  the  highest  mountains  ; 
and  there  are  many  indications  that  these  glaciers  were  much  more  ex- 
tensive at  some  time  in  the  past. 

The  Coast  Ranges  extend  in  a  broad,  broken  belt  along 
the  western  side  of  the  state.  They  include  many  ridges, 
generally  parallel  with  the  shore,  and  have  numerous  long 
spurs  on  the  west.  The  total  width  of  the  Coast  Ranges  is 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  Sierra,  but  their  average  height 
is  not  half  so  great.  At  the  Golden  Gate  the  mountains 
are  broken  down,  making  a  grand  outlet  to  the  ocean. 

To  the  east  of  San  Francisco  and  of  the  hills  of  Contra  Costa  stands 
Mount  Diablo  (3849  feet),  which  is  the  most  prominent  elevation  of  the 
Coast  Ranges  in  this  part  of  the  state.    Mount  St.  Helena  (about  4350 


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feet),  rising  at  the  head  of  the  lovely  Napa  valley,  is  also  very  conspic- 
uous, and  is  a  beautiful  height. 

In  southern  California  the  Coast  Ranges  merge  into  a 
confused  mass  of  mountains  and  hills  extending  beyond 
the  Mexican  boundary.  They  are  highest  east  of  Los 
Angeles,  and  are  there  called  the  San  Bernardino  Range. 
North  of  Los  Angeles  they  are  known  as  the  Sierra  Madre ; 
and  farther  west,  where  they  merge  with  the  Coast  Ranges, 
they  are  called  the  mountains  01  San  Buena  Ventura.  The 
loftiest  peak  is  Mount  San  Bernardino  (11,600  feet). 

Valleys.  Where  is  the  great  central  valley  of  California  ?  What  is 
the  general  character  of  its  slope  1  By  what  two  great  rivers  is  it 
drained?  What  has  already  been  said  of  some  parts  of  the  Mohave 
Desert  ? 

The  great  central  valley  is  about  400.  miles  long  and 
from  20  to  50  miles  wide.  The  area  of  the  entire  basin  is 
computed  to  be  about  65,000  square  miles,  of  which  nearly 
20,000  square  miles  is  comparatively  level.  The  western 
lower  than  the  eastern,  while  of  course  all 
slope  toward  the  two  main  rivers  by  which 
valley  is  drained. 

i  the  heart  of  the  Sierra,  about  150  miles  east 
of  San  Francisco,  is  the  famous  Yosemite 
j.    This  chasm  is  six  miles  long  and 
>m  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  wide.     Its  al- 
most vertical  granite  walls  rise  from 
3000  to  5000  feet.  From  the  top  of 
these  cliffs  the  Merced  River 


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a 


RELIEF  MAP  OF 

CALIFORNIA 


by  N.  F.  Drake 

6CAIE  OF  MILES 


0  20  10 


Copyright,  1898,  by  N.  F.  Drake. 


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and  its  tributaries  fall  in  grand  cataracts  from  400  to  1600 
feet  in  height. 

Congress  in  18G4  granted  this  valley  to  California  for  a  public  park, 
and  in  1891  the  United  States  government  established  the  Yosemite 
National  Park,  which  includes  42  townships.  It  embraces  the  state  park 
and  the  drainage  basin  about  it,  preserving  the  forest  and  water  courses. 
It  includes  also  the  Hetch  Hetchy  Valley,  which  resembles  the  Yosemite, 
although  not  equal  to  it  in  grandeur.  The  highest  point  in  the  National 
Park  is  Mount  LyelL 

Southward  from  Yosemite  Park  are  the  General  Grant 
and  the  Sequoia  National  parks  in  the  grand  Sequoia 
gigantea  forest ;  and  northeast  of  these  forest  parks,  on  the 
middle  and  south  forks  of  Kings  River,  aro  two  magnifi- 
cent canyon  valleys  like  tho  Yosemite  and  Hetch  Hetchy. 
Between  the  western  spurs  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  and 
running  northwest,  there  aro  many  river  valleys  which 
drain  into  the  Pacific.  Some  of  these  are  extensive  and 
very  fertile.  Tho  Salinas  River  valley  is  one  of  the  lar- 
gest. The  valleys  of  the  Santa  Ana,  Santa  Clara,  Napa, 
Sonoma,  Russian,  and  Eel  rivers  are  also  important 
and  interesting. 

A  strip  along  the  southwest  coast,  including  the 
western  parts  of  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  Los 
Angeles,  and  San  Diego  counties,  has  been 
called  the  Garden  of  California.    East  of 
this  there  are  fertile  valleys, — San  Ber- 
nardino, Riverside,  and  others, — 
which  are  thickly  settled.     East 
and  southeast  of  the  Sierra 


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PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

SCALE  OP  MILES 

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ELEVATIONS 


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there  lies  an  arid  region  covering  nearly  one 
fourth  of  the  state.  It  belongs  mainly  to  the 
Great  Basin,  and  is  one  of  the  driest  and  most 
barren  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  includes 
the  sandy  and  rocky  Mohave  Desert,  stretching 
between  the  Sierra  and  the  Colorado  Kiver, 
and  also  comprises  a  part  of  the  Colorado 
Desert.    This  region  has  but  few  inhabitants. 

Other  Regions.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state 
there  is  a  rocky  plateau,  high,  bleak,  and  sterile,  broken 
by  short  mountain  ranges,  and  traversed  by  the  Pitt  River 
with  its  deep  gorges.  It  is  the  lake  region  of  California, 
and  a  part  of  it  lies  in  the  Great  Basin.  In  this  rugged 
district  there  are  many  beds  of  lava  and  volcanic  ashes. 

Above  the  great  central  valley,  north  of  the  parallel  of 
40°  and  west  of  Mount  Shasta,  is  a  rough,  complicated 
mountain  region  including  the  high  and  rugged  plateau 
of  the  Klamath. 

Drainage.  Which  is  the  largest  river  in  the  state? 
In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ?  What  river  flowing  in 
the  opposite  direction  joins  it,  and  where  do  they  unite  ? 
What  great  region  do  they  together  drain  ?  What  bay 
do  they  enter  ?  Through  what  other  bodies  of  water  do 
they  reach  the  Pacific?  What  rivers  enter  the  Pacific 
north  of  San  Francisco ;  south  of  that  city  ?  What  river 
forms  part  of  the  boundary  of  the  state  ¥  What  lakes  are 
in  the  northeastern  part ;  on  or  near  the  eastern  boun- 
dary ?    Name  other  lakes  in  the  state. 

Except  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joa- 
quin, the  rivers  of  California  are  small,  and 
their  importance  lies  in  their  service  to  agri- 


culture, mining,  and  manufactures.  The  Sacra- 
mento is  about  400  miles  long.  It  rises  in  the 
elevated  region  near  Mount  Shasta,  and  soon 
unites  with  Pitt  River,  which  is  properly  re- 
garded as  the  upper  course  of  the  same  stream. 
It  is  navigable  for  light  steamers  for  more  than 
250  miles  from  its  mouth.  Many  of  its  tribu- 
taries, of  which  the  Feather,  Yuba,  ancT&meri- 
can  rivers  are  the  chief,  flow  through  deep 
mountain  gorges. 

Owing  to  the  considerable  rainfall  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Sierra,  and  to  the  melting  snow  on  the  high  moun- 
tains, many  of  the  streams  flowing  thence  carry  a  large 
volume  of  water  even  in  the  dry  season.  This  is  not  the 
case,  however,  with  the  streams  from  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Coast  Ranges.  In  the  dry  season  most  of  these  sink 
and  disappear  soon  after  leaving  the  foothills.  Most 
of  the  permanent  water  courses  on  this  side  of  the 
great  central  valley  rise  north  of  Clear  Lake  in 
Lake  county. 


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The  head  waters  of  the  San 
Joaquin  take  their  rise  at  the 
foot  of  a  glacier  near  the 
summit  of  Mount  Lyell. 
The  south  fork  of  this 
river  rises  near  Mount 
Goddard.  The  San 
Joaquin  is  about 
350  miles  long, 
flows  south- 


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■west  for  100  miles,  then  northwest,  and  finally  joins 
the  Sacramento  not  far  east  of  Suisun  Bay.  It  is 
navigable  for  steamers  to  Stockton.  For  a  considera- 
ble distance  from  Suisun  Bay  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  rivers  are  bordered  by  tule  swamps.  The 
principal  tributaries  of  the  San  Joaquin  are  the  Mer- 
ced, Tuolumne,  Fresno,  Stanislaus,  Calaveras,  and 
Mokelumne  rivers,  all  rising  in  the  Sierra.  The  San 
Joaquin  has*  no  western  tributaries.  The  south  and 
main  fork  of  the  Tuolumne,  rising  in  a  glacier  on  the 
north  side  of  Mount  Lyell,  flows  through  the  Big  Can- 
yon, which  is  noted  for  its  grand  scenery. 

Of  the  rivers  flowing  directly  to  the  Pacific  the  largest  is  the 
Klamath,  which  rises  in  Oregon.  From  what  lake  does  it  issue  to 
enter  California?  Other  important  coast  rivers  are  the  Eel,  Rus- 
sian, and  Salinas.  Except  the  last,  the  streams  from  the  Coast 
Eanges  south  of  San  Francisco  usually  sink  in  the  dry  season, 
flowing  slowly  through  gravel  and  sand  to  the  ocean. 

The  Colorado,  though  forming  a  part  of  the  southeastern  boun- 
dary of  the  state,  and  navigable  from  the  Gulf  of  California  to 
southern  Nevada,  is  of  small  service  to  California  from  which  it  has 
no  tributary.    Its  current  is  very  rapid. 

In  the  plateau  and  desert  regions  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  the 
drainage  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  The  streams  are  small  and  ter- 
minate in  saline  lakes,  or  else  disappear  by  evaporation.  The 
Truckee,  outlet  of  Lake  Tahoe,  flows  into  Pyramid  Lake,  Nevada ; 
Walker  River  enters  Walker  Lake  in  the  same  state ;  the  Carson 
River  flows  into  Carson  Lake,  and  thence  into  the  sink  of  the 
Humboldt  and  Carson  in  Nevada;  Owens  River  ends  in  Owens 
Lake,  Inyo  county;  and  the  Mohave  River,  which  is  entirely  in 
San  Bernardino  county,  evaporates  in  the  desert. 

Lakes.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state  is  a 
remarkable  lake  region.  The  principal  lakes  here  are 
Goose,  Rhett,  and  Lower  Klamath,  all  of  which  are 
partly  in  Oregon.  These  are  counted  among  fresh- 
water lakes,  but  earthy  salts  strongly  affect  the  lake 
waters  of  the  entire  region  in  Modoc  and  Lassen  coun- 
ties. Terraces  about  most  of  the  lakes  in  this  district 
indicate  the  location  of  former  shore  lines,  which  tell 
of  times  when  there  was  more  water  in  the  lakes  and 
at  higher  levels  than  now. 

Lake  Tahoe,  in  the  Sierra  at  the  angle  of  the  state 
line,  is  partly  in  Nevada.  It  is  a  fresh-water  lake, 
about  22  miles  long  and  12  miles  wide,  with  a  some- 
what regular  oval  shape.  Its  surface  is  over  6200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has  been  sounded  to  a 
depth  of  1645  feet,  and  is  the  deepest  lake  known  in 
North  America,  with  the  exception  of  Crater  Lake  in 
Oregon.  This  "gem  of  the.  Sierra"  is  set  in  a  rim  of 
forest-clad  mountains  rising  thousands  of  feet  above 
it,  and  occupies  the  place  of  what  was  once  a  great 
glacier.  The  clear  waters  of  the  lake  give  back  earth 
and  sky  in  many-colored,  marvelous  reflection.  In 
this  lake  are  found  several  varieties  of  trout,  some  of 
extraordinary  size. 

Mono  Lake,  lying  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra 
near  the  Nevada  boundary,  at  an  elevation  of  6380 
feet,  is  strongly  alkaline.  It  is  in  a  region  of  volcanic 
cones,  and  receives  streams  which  rise  between  Mount 
Dana  and  Castle  Peak,  or  drain  the  mountain  slopes 
and  passes  still  farther  south.  In  form  it  is  nearly 
circular,  with  an  average  diameter  of  about  12  miles. 


CALIFORNIA. 


Yosemite  Valley. 

Clear  Lake,  in  the  Coast  mountains,  is  a  beautiful  body 
of  water  and  a  favorite  summer  resort.  Owens  Lake, 
about  100  miles  south  of  Mono,  is  some  18  miles  long. 
The  waters  of  Owens  Lake  are  saline,  and  upon  their 
product  has  been  founded  a  profitable  soda  industry. 

In  Kings  county,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  great  central  valley,  is  a 
shallow  depression  known  as  Tulare  Lake.  This  lake  was  formerly  about 
30  miles  in  length,  and  received  through  a  number  of  small  streams  the 
drainage  from  the  southern  part  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  soon  losing  it  all 
by  evaporation.  In  very  wet  seasons  it  occasionally  overflowed  into  the 
San  Joaquin.  Most  of  the  water  from  its  tributary,  streams  is  now 
diverted  elsewhere  and  used  in  irrigation,  and  much  of  the  ground  once 
covered  by  the  lake  is  farming  land. 

(Rocks  and  Soils.  The  principal  rocks  of  California  are 
comprised  in  four  classes  —  crystalline,  secondary,  tertiary, 
and  volcanic. 

The  crystalline  class  includes  granites  and  metamorphic  sedimentary 
or  aqueous  rocks,—  such  as  schists,  sandstones,  jasper,  etc.,—  of  doubtful 
age.  Granite  and  metamorphic  rocks  constitute  the  great  mass  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  parts  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  The  secondary  rocks  are 
mostly  slates  of  the  western  foothill  region  of  the  Sierra.  The  tertiary 
marine  sandstone  and  shales  compose  the  greater  part  of  the  Coast 
Ranges. 

Volcanic  rocks,—  lava,  basalt,  trap,  etc.,— abound  in  California  north 
of  the  latitude  of  San  Francisco.  Although  there  is  now  no  active  volcano 
in  the  state,  the  fact  of  comparatively  recent  volcanic  activity  is  shown 
by  the  numerous  hot  springs  among  the  Coast  mountains ;  the  so-called 
geysers  near  Clear  Lake  and  Lassens  Peak  and  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Sierra  south  of  Mono  Lake ;  the  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Colorado  Desert ; 
and  by  the  frequency  of  earthquakes,  especially  near  the  ocean  and  along 
the  great  fault  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

In  the  valleys  the  soil  is  generally  alluvial  —  fine  wash- 
ings from  the  mountain  rocks.  In  the  lower  valleys  it  is 
commonly  a  warm  sandy  loam,  with  here  and  there  patches 
of  heavy  black  adobe  and  of  yellow  clay.  In  the  higher 
valley  and  foothill  regions  there  is  much  gravelly  soil. 
The  great  central  valley,  where  watered,  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  soils  are  generally  of  remarkable  depth. 

Both  the  valley  and  foothill  soils  are  very  rich  and 
easily   cultivated.      In    many   places    they  are    adapted 


equally  for  cereals  and  fruits.  The  tule  lands  along  the 
Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin,  when  reclaimed  and 
protected  by  levees  against  overflow  of  the  rivers,  are 
among  the  most  productive  in  the  state. 

Climate.  In  California  there  is  a  great  variety  of  cli- 
mate, but,  generally  speaking,  it  is  dry  and  equable,  and  is 
so  healthful  that  few  who  conform  to  its  requirements 
ever  suffer  from  it.  Epidemics  rarely  occur.  The  temper- 
ature varies  much  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  depend- 
ing largely  upon  distance  from  the  ocean,  the  influence  of 
mountains,  and  elevation  above  the  sef»  Relatively,  in 
summer,  the  weather  is  cool  on  the  coast  and  hot  in  the 
interior  valleys.  The  sea  causes  comparative  uniformity 
between  the.  north  and  the  south,  but  from  east  to  west  the 
changes  are  very  rapid.  Within  a  few  miles  of  the  ocean 
the  climate  is  one  of  the  most  equable  in  the  world. 

In  general  there  are  two  seasons  —  the  dry,  from  May  to  November, 
and  the  rainy,  from  November  to  May.  Snow  seldom  falls  in  any  but 
the  mountain  regions,  although  the  long,  severe  rainstorms  from  the 
southwest  are  sometimes  followed  by  cold  waves,  or  even  by  sharp 
northers. 

The  average  yearly  rainfall  decreases  quite  regularly  from  nearly  80 
inches  in  the  extreme  northwest  to  about  4  inches  in  the  southeast  cor- 
ner. At  San  Diego  it  is  about  10  inches,  and  at  San  Francisco  25  inches. 
For  the  entire  state  it  is  about  20  inches  —  not  more  than  half  that  of 
the  Atlantic  coast. 

Where  the  heaviest  rainfall  occurs,  north  of  Cape  Men- 
docino, the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  northwest. 
Below  that  point,  in  all  but  the  winter  months,  westerly 
winds  prevail.  These  come  from  the  Pacific,  where  they 
have  been  cooled  by  the  California  current. 


Lake  Tahoe. 

In  winter  the  coast  waters  are  warmer  than  the  land,  and  the  winds 
blowing  from  the  ocean  moderate  the  cold.  Thus  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year  the  climate  is  modified  by  the  prevailing  winds,  which  have  always 
a  nearly  uniform  temperature.  The  average  monthly  means  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  in  the  Golden  Gate  varied  less  than  10°  F.  during 
a  period  of  ten  years.  The  cyclonic  winds  which  move  landward  from 
the  Pacific  carry  with  them  an  immense  amount  of  moisture,  which  is 
precipitated  as  rain  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  foothills,  and  as  snow  on 
the  Sierra. 

The  ocean  winds  enter  the  great  central  valley  through 
the  San  Francisco  water  gap  —  the  Golden  Gate.    Among 


CALIFORNIA. 


the  foothills  in  this  region  the  summer 
is  quite  warm,  the  temperature  ranging 
from  85°  to  -95°,  and  even  to  100°  or 
more;  but  the  severity  of  the  heat  is 
much  lessened  by  the  dryness  of  the  air 
and  the  coolness  of  the  nights.  The 
rainy  season  here,  though  sometimes 
chilly,  usually  has  many  agreeable  quali- 
ties. In  the  high  Sierra  the  winters  are 
long  and  cold,  but  the  summer  middays 
are  often  as  warm*  there  as  they  are  on 
the  coast. 

In  the  Great  Basin  region  east  of  the 
Sierra  in  the  Mohave  Desert  the  climate 
is  very  severe ;  the  summer  heat  is  kill- 
ing, the  winter  is  bitterly  cold. 

Fogs  are  frequent  along  the  coast  in  both  sum- 
mer and  winter.    In  winter  they  often  extend  far 
inland,  modifying  the  temperature  by  checking 
the  radiation  of  heat.     In  the  dry  season  tl 
afford  grateful  moisture  to  vegetatio, 

RESOURCES   AND   INDUSTRIES. 

Vegetation.  There  are  more  than  100 
species  of  forest  trees  in  California,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  conifers. 

Great  forests  cover  the   Coast  Ranges  A  Big  Tree 

and  the  western  slopes  of   the   Sierra 
Nevada,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy.     They  extend  from  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  state  to  about  latitude  36°  30'. 

On  the  Sierra  the  main  forest  belt  reaches  from  about  4000  to  9000 
feet  above  sea  level.  Farther  up,  to  a  height  of  from  10,000  to  12,000 
feet,  are  found  junipers,  hemlock,  and  alpine  species  of  pines.  On 
the  foothills  and  in  the  coast  valleys  there  are  sparse  growths  of  oaks, 
pines,  and  various  kinds  of  underwoods.  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Sierra  there  are  open  groves  of  large  yellow  pine,  silver  fir,  nut  pine, 
and  many  varieties  of  shrubs.  The  great  central  valley,  though  mostly 
treeless,  has  some  of  the  noblest  parklike  expanses  of  oak  woods  to  be 
found  in  the  world.  The  southeastern  portion  of  the  state  is  almost 
destitute  of  trees.  California  is  rich  in  flowers  of  many  species.  The 
California  buckeye,  various  species  of  Ceanothus,  and  manzanita  are 
widely  distributed.  These,  with  thorny  shrubs  and  scrub  oaks,  form 
dense  thickets  called  chaparral. 

The  most  remarkable  forest  growths  are  the  two  species 
of  Sequoia,  the  giant  sequoia  (Sequoia  giyantea)  or  "  big 
tree"  of  the  Sierra  and  the  towering  redwood  (Sequoia 
semper vir ens)  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  No  other  species  of 
Sequoia  is  known  to  exist  on  the  globe.  The  giant 
sequoia,  though  exceeded  in  height  by  an  Australian 
eucalyptus,  is  the  grandest  tree  that  grows.  It  is  dis- 
tributed in  groves  and  forests  along  the  western  flank  of 
the  Sierra,  from  the  middle  fork  of  the  American  River  to 
the  head  of  Deer  Creak,  at  a  height  of  about  5000  to  8000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  largest  forests  are  on  the  Kings,  Kaweah,  and  Tule 
rivers,  but  the  best  known  of  these  gigantic  trees  are 
those  in  the  celebrated  Mariposa  and  Calaveras  groves. 
Some  of  them  are  over  300  feet  in  height  and  measure 
more  than  100  feet  in  circumference. 


The  redwood  timber  belt  is  one  of  the 
heaviest  and  most  wonderful  forests  in 
the  world.  It  occupies  a  rather  narrow 
strip  of  the  Coast  mountains  about  30,0 
miles  long,  fronting  the  ocean  from 
Monterey  Bay  north  to  Oregon.  Many 
of  these  trees  are  of  great  size. 
*■  Other  trees  growing  in  different  parts 
of  the  state,  many  of  them  among  the 
great  forests,  include,  besides  oaks  and 
large  yellow  pines,  the  sugar  pine,  the 
largest  and  noblest  of  all  the  pines  of 
the  world,  the  Douglas  fir,  white  fir, 
cedars,  maples,  and  the  sycamore,  wal- 
nut, ash,  madrofia,  and  laurel.  The  ma- 
drona  flourishes  in  immense  groves.  The 
propagation  of  hard-wood  trees  receives 
much  attention  both  from  private  in- 
dividuals and  from  the  state  itself,  whose 
forestry  work  is  great  in  scope. 

Animals.  There  are  many  species  of 
animals  in  California.  Among  them  are 
grizzly,  black,  and  cinnamon  bears,  deer, 
antelopes,  mountain  sheep,  cougars,  wild- 
cats, gray  wolves,  coyotes,  foxes,  beavers, 
badgers,  raccoons,  otters,  martens,  minks, 
skunks,  hares,  gophers,  woodchucks,  por- 
cupines, woodrats,  and  squirrels. 

Among  the  birds  are  vultures,  eagles,  hawks,  owls,  grouse,  quail, 
geese,  ducks,  swans,  and  chaparral  cocks  or  road  runners.  Mention 
some  of  the  song  birds. 

Game  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  Trout  abound  in 
many  of  the  streams.  In  the  coast  waters  are  found  the  salmon,  tuna, 
sturgeon,  black  sea  bass  or  jewfish,  barracuda,  rockfish,  turbot,  herring, 
sole,  smelt,  halibut,  mackerel,  flounder,  cod,  and  oysters  and  other  shell- 
fish. The  fisheries  of  California  are  steadily  increasing  in  value.  The 
whale  fishery  carried  on  from  this  state  is  now  the  largest  in  the  country. 

Herds  of  seals  and  sea  lions  inhabit  the  coast.  Some  having  perma- 
nent rookeries  on  small  islands  close  to  San  Francisco  are  of  much  inter- 
est to  sight-seers,  but  are  considered  very  injurious  to  the  fishing  interest. 


Ruins  of  an  Old  Spanish  Mission. 


8 


CALIFORNIA. 


Wheat  Harvester. 

Agriculture.  It  is  truly  said  of  California  that  the  dis- 
covery of  her  agricultural  capabilities  was  greater  than 
the  discovery  of  gold,  and  that  her  wealth  in  grains  and 
fruits  is  greater  than  that  which  is  dug  from  her  mines. 
About  40"  per  cent  of  the  land  in  the  state  is  arable,  and 

irrigation  is  constantly  in- 
creasing the  area  of  tillage, 
particularly  in  the  southern 
part.  Agriculture  is  the 
most  general  occupation, 
employing  about  one  fourth 
of  the  working  people,  the 
profits  of  whose  labor  are 
yearly  counted  in  tens  and 
scores  of  millions  of  dollars. 
In  California  there  are 
some  of  the  largest  wheat, 
stock,  and  dairy  farms  in 
the  world;  and  the  vine- 
yards, orange  groves,  and 
orchards  embrace  over  300,- 
000  acres.  No  other  state 
has  such  a  variety  of  agricul- 
tural products.  In  wheat- 
growing  it  is  one  of  the  leading  states  of  the  Union, 
producing  from  30,000,000  to  40,000,000  bushels  each  year. 
Most  of  the  crop  is  raised  in  the  great  central  valley,  where 
some  single  fields  contain  thousands  of  acres  of  productive 
land. 

Many  varieties  of  wheat  are  grown.  The  climate  imparts  to  wheat  a 
durable  quality  especially  fitting  it  for  export,  and  enormous  quantities 
are  shipped  to  other  states  and  to  foreign  ports.  Barley,  in  the  raising 
of  which  California  is  the  first  state  in  the  Union,  is  the  next  largest 
crop,  more  than  17,000,000  bushels  being  sometimes  produced  in  a  single 
year.  Oats  and  rye  are  raised  to  some  extent.  Other  productions  are 
hops,  beans,  pease,  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  sweet  potatoes,  alfalfa,  and  a 
little  ramie,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  Garden  vegetables  are  cultivated  in 
large  quantities. 

Stock-raising  is  an  industry  of  great  extent.  Fine 
breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  reared.     California 


Branch  of  Olives. 


is  one  of  the  largest  wool-growing  states  in 
the  Union.  The  bunch  grasses,  wild  oats, 
bur  clover,  and  other  natural  herbage  of  the 
mountain  foothills  and  valleys  afford  rich 
pasture.  In  October  the  grasses  spring  up, 
and  they-make  fresh  grazing  until  June,  when 
the  sun  cures  the  feed  as  it  stands. 


The  long  grazing  seasons  are  favorable  to  the  dairy 
ing  industry,  which  is  represented  by  numerous  cream- 
eries and  cheese  factories.  Most  of  the  dairying  lands 
are  in  the  coast  counties  from  Point  Conception  north 
for  400  miles,  and  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento 
valleys,  where,  in  addition  to  grazing,  alfalfa  flourishes. 
In  the  river  valleys  of  Humboldt  county  and  other  re- 
gions of  the  north  coast  are  some  of  the  best  dairy 
districts  in  the  United  States.  In  southern  California 
there  are  several  ostrich  farms,  where  ostriches  are  bred 
for  the  profit  obtained  from  their  feathers. 


Over  two  thirds  of  the  arable  land  is 
adapted  for  fruit,  and  nearly  all  the  important  fruits  of 
the  temperate  and  subtropical  climates  are  produced  in 
abundance.  Thousands  of  car  loads  of  both  deciduous 
and  citrus  fruits  are  annually  shipped  from  the  state. 

Grape-growing  is  an  industry  of  the  first  importance. 
The  vine  flourishes  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  interior  below 
an  elevation  of  4000  feet.  The  annual  wine  product  is 
from  15,000,000  to  20,000,000  gallons,  two  thirds  of  which 
is  exported.  In  the  hot,  dry  interior  basins  great  quanti- 
ties of  grapes  are  made  into  raisins;  of  which  several  mil- 
lion boxes  are  exported  annually.  More  than  half  the 
raisins  consumed  in  our  country  are  supplied  by  California. 

Plums,  peaches,  pears,  apples,  cherries,  prunes,  apricots,  nectarines, 
figs,  and  olives  thrive  in  most  parts  of  the  state.  Oranges,  lemons,  limes, 
and  walnuts,  almonds,  and  other  nuts  grow  in  southern  California  and 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin.  Strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, blackberries,  currants,  and  other  small  fruits  are  grown -and 
canned  in  large  quantities.  Strawberries  are  marketed  in  every  month 
except  January  and  February.  In  several  of  the  southern  counties  bee 
culture  is  carried  on,  and  a  large  amount  of  fine  honey  is  exported. 


Sheep  Ranch. 


CALIFORNIA. 


Successful  agriculture  in  many  parts  of  the  state  depends  on  irriga- 
tion. The  practice  of  irrigation  really  began  in  California  before  the 
nineteenth  century,  but  although  several  million  acres  are  now  irrigated, 
it  is  yet  only  local.  In  addition  to  the  mountain  streams,  there  are 
thousands  of  artesian  wells  which  are  a  valuable  aid  in  irrigation.  Some 
in  the  Santa  Ana  River  basin,  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  elsewhere, 
have  a  flow  of  over  1,000,000  gallons  a  day.  Irrigation  is  also  assisted  in 
many  places  by  windmills  and  steam  pumps  for  raising  water  from  wells. 

Mineral  Productions.  Of  all  the  resources  of  Cali- 
fornia none  are  more  extraordinary  than  her  mineral  treas- 
ures. Chief  among  these  are  the  immense  gold  deposits, 
from  which  vast  wealth  has  been  derived,  and  which  are 
still  among  the  richest  in  the  world. 

For  20  years  after  the  discovery  of  gold,  mining  was  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  California ;  then  it  became  second  to  agriculture.  Gold  de- 
posits exist  from  the  Oregon  boundary  to  the  Colorado  Desert,  but  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  gold-mining  has  been  done  in  the  northern 
half  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  among  the  Shasta  and  Siskiyou  mountains. 
Mines  in  the  southern  desert  regions,  especially  in  the  famous  Rand  dis- 
trict about  Randsburg,  have  been  extensively  opened  up. 

The  gold  obtained  from  California  in  1902  was  valued  at  about  $17,- 
000,000,  being  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  total  product  of  the 
United  States.     Since  1848  California  is  estimated  to  have  produced  in 


New  Almaden  Quicksilver  Mine. 

gold  more  than  $1,200,000,000.     Experts  declare  that  there  is  still  more 
gold  in  the  mines  of  the  state  than  has  been  taken  out. 

Gold  is  obtained  from  quartz  mines  by  crushing  the  gold-bearing 
quartz  rock,  and  from  gravel  banks  by  washing  away  the  earth.  Many 
methods  are  employed  in  gold-mining,  and  California  has  some  of  the 
finest  mining  machinery  in  the  country. 

Silver  is  found  in  many  places  in  California.  There  are 
mines  of  this  metal  in  the  southern  part  and  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Sierra.  Quicksilver  is  a  valuable  product,  of 
which  California  supplies  nearly  all  that  is  obtained  in  our 
country.  It  occurs  in  the  Coast  Ranges  from  Los  Angeles 
county  to  Trinity.  Copper  ore  is  found  in  Fresno,  Cala- 
veras, Nevada,  Shasta,  and  other  counties.  The  Shasta-belt 
is  especially  important.  Bituminous  coal  and  lignite  are 
mined  in  the  Coast  Ranges  and  in  the  great  central  valley. 

A  good  grade  of  lignite  is  mined  at  Tesla.  From  this  place  the  dis- 
tribution of  electric  power  to  many  distant  points  is  effected  by  the 
burning  of  slack,  screenings,  carboniferous  bone,  etc.,  in  furnaces  con- 
nected with  the  mine.  Borax  is  an  important  product  of  San  Bernardino 
and  Inyo  counties,  from  which  is  obtained  the  greater  part  of  all  that  is 
produced  in  the  United  States. 


Gathering  Grapes. 

Other  minerals  of  California  are  petroleum  and  natural  gas,  soda,  salt, 
sulphur,  cinnabar,  asphaltum,  chromic  and  hematite  iron  ores,  asbestos, 
plumbago,  and  antimony.  Excellent  building  stones, —  granite,  sand- 
stone, and  marble, —  are  quarried  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  Mexi- 
can onyx,  slate,  and  limestone  are  also  obtained. 

The  total  value  of  mineral  products  in  the  state  is  from  $25,000,000  to 
$30,000,000  a  year.  There  are  in  California  more  than  100  mineral 
springs  possessing  medicinal  qualities.    Some  of  them  are  famous  resorts. 

Lumbering.  The  mountain  forests  furnish  unlimited 
material  for  lumbering.  The  most  valuable  lumber  trees 
are  the  redwood,  of  which  the  largest  growth  is  in  Hum- 
boldt county ;  sugar  and  yellow  pine,  which  are  obtained 
from  the  Sierra  regions ;  and  the  great  firs  and  cedars. 

Manufactures.  No  other  industry  of  the  state  equals 
manufacturing  in  the  value  of  its  products,  which  yearly 
exceeds  $300,000,000.  The  principal  manufactures  include 
refined  sugar,  packed  meat,  lumber,  flour,  canned  fruits  and 
vegetables,  foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  wines  and 
malt  liquors,  cars,  leather,  printed  matter,  and  explosives. 


Entrance  to  a  Gold  Mine. 


10 


CALIFORNIA. 


Library,  University  of  California. 

Mining  machinery  and  tools  and  articles  of  general  outfit  for  miners 
are  special  products  of  great  importance,  a  large  part  of  which  is  sent  to 
regions  beyond  the  state,  even  to  the  mining  districts  of  the  Yukon 
country  in  Alaska  and  Canada.  The  numerous  lumber  mills  of  Hum- 
boldt county  manufacture  over  200,000,000  feet  of  lumber  annually. 
Many  million  pounds  of  beet  sugar  are  made  eachyear. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  The  commerce  of  the 
state,  domestic  and  foreign,  is  very  extensive.  California 
is  connected  by  steamship  lines  with  Hawaii,  Japan,  China, 
India,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Mexico,  and  South  America. 
It  carries  on  an  important  coasting  trade  in  the  Pacific, 
from  Alaska  to  Chile,  and  with  Atlantic  ports  by  way  of 
Panama  and  Cape  Horn.  Several  trunk  lines  of  railroad 
connect  it  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  railroads  now 
in  operation  within  the  state  have  an  aggregate  length  of 
over  6000  miles. 

The  leading  exports  are  wheat  and  flour,  wine,  gold, 
wool,  and  fresh,  dried,  and  canned  fruits.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  rice,  and  manufactured  articles. 


HISTORY. 

The  first  white  men  within  sight  of  what  is  now  the 
state  of  California  were  probably  Hernando  de  Alarcon 
and  his  party,  who  in  1540  ascended  the  Colorado  Eiver 
for  perhaps  100  miles  above  its  mouth.  In  1542^3  an 
expedition  under  Cabrillo,  a  Spanish  officer,  sailed  along 
the  coast  as  far  as  the  forty-second  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude. In  1579  Sir  Francis  Drake,  the  famous  English 
navigator,  visited  the  coast,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
landed  in  the  bay  which  bears  his  name. 

The  name  California  was  taken  from  an  old  Spanish  romance.  It  was 
first  given  to  some  locality  of  the  peninsula  or  coast,  and  afterwards  ex- 
tended over  the  Great  Basin  and  indefinitely  northward.  California  has 
been  called  the  "  Switzerland  of  America,"  the  "  Summerland  of  Amer- 
ica," and  the  like. 

The  first  Spanish  settlement  was  made  at  San  Diego  in 
1769,  by  Franciscan  fathers.     During  the  next  50  years 


they  established  20  missions  along  a  narrow  strip  near  the 
coast  from  that  point  to  San  Francisco.  About  these  mis- 
sions they  gathered  the  Indians,  and  taught  and  employed 
them.  Spanish  dominion  lasted  until  1821.  In  that  year 
Mexico  declared  her  independence  of  Spain,  and  in  1824 
California  became  a  territory  of  the  republic  of  Mexico. 

The  Mexican  rule  continued  till  1846,  when,  mainly 
through  the  action  of  American  settlers,  the  independence 
of  California  was  asserted  and,  with  United  States  military 
aid,  maintained,  the  authority  of  our  government  being 
established  here  in  1847.  Meanwhile  the  Mexican  war  was 
in  progress.  It  was  ended  February  2,  1848,  by  the  treaty 
of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  whereby  California,  with  other 
territory,  was  formally  ceded  to  the  United  States.  Just 
before  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty  the  great  discovery  of 
gold  was  made,  from  which  dates  the  rapid  growth  of  Cali- 
fornia and  its  development  into  a  leading  state  of  the  Union. 

Reports  of  gold  in  California  had  come  from  Drake  and  others  before 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  Mexicans  had  probably  found  gold  here. 
But  in  January,  1848,  came  the  discovery  that  aroused  the  world,  when 
James  Wilson  Marshall  (from  New  Jersey)  found  gold  grains  in  the 
tailrace  of  John  A.  Sutter's /nill,  in  what  is  now  the  township  of  Coloma, 
Eldorado  county.  Soon  the  gold-bearing  nature  of  the  region  was 
widely  known,  and  the  precious  area  rapidly  enlarged  under  the  search 
of  an  ever-increasing  number  of  prospectors.  The  excitement  spread 
throughout  the  world,  and  was  followed  by  a  rush  of  gold  seekers,  who 
have  been  termed  "  Argonauts."  Within  a  few  months  there  were  tens 
of  thousands  of  them  in  California.  Many  came  overland  across  the 
continent,  and  others  by  water,  some  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
and  some  sailing  round  Cape  Hqrn. 

Many  of  them  fell  by  the  way  from  hardship,  disease,  and  Indian  as- 
sault, but  still  the  vast  army  increased.  The  great  harbor  of  San  Fran- 
cisco was  quickly  crowded  with  the  ships  of  different  nations,  and  a 
strange  city  of  tents  and  sheds  sprang  up.  This  was  to  be  rapidly 
replaced  by  the  noble  metropolis  at  the  Golden  Gate. 

California  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  state  Septem- 
ber-0,  1850.  During  the  next  few  years  there  was  a  strug- 
gle for  supremacy  between  the  lawless  and  the  law-abiding 
in  the  new  community,  resulting  in  the  complete  estab- 
lishment of  social  order.  The  subsequent  growth  of  the 
state  has  been  normal  and  steady.  Her  career  of  pros- 
perity has  followed  from  the  supplementing  of  great  min- 
eral industries  by  the  rapid  development  of  her  vast  agri- 
cultural and  manufacturing  resources,  and  from  her  very 
liberal  provision  for  public  education  and  advancement. 


nit 


Encina  Hall,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 


CALIFORNIA. 


11 


Lick  Observatory. 

During  the  civil  war  California  remained  faithful  to  the 
Union,  and  with  men  and  treasure  maintained  its  cause. 

The  population  of  the  state  increased  from  92,597  in 
1850  to  379,994  in  1860.    In  1900  it  was  1,485,053. 


Government.  The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  senate  and  an 
assembly.  Senators  are  elected  for  four  years,  and  members  of  the 
assembly  for  two  years.    The  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  biennial. 

The  executive  department  includes  a  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
secretary  of  state,  controller,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  surveyor- 
general,  clerk  of  the  supreme  court,  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  superintendent  of  state  printing,  all  elected  for  four  years. 

The  judicial  department  comprises  the  senate  sitting  as  a  court  of  im- 
peachment, a  supreme  court,  superior  courts,  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
such  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish. 

Calif  ornia  is  divided  into  57  counties.  The  state  has  2  senators  and  8 
representatives  in  Congress,  and  10  votes  in  the  electoral  college. 

Education.  The  constitution  provides  that  a  free  school 
shall  be  kept  up  and  supported  in  every  district  of  the 
state  for  at  least  six  months  of  the  year. 

V 

The  state  has  a  large  school  fund,  and  the  total  annual  expenditure 
for  the  support  of  the  public  schools  is  about  $8,000,000.  Each  county 
has  a  board  of  education  and  a  superintendent,  and  every  school  district 
has  a  board  of  trustees.  High  schools  are  maintained  in  the  cities  and 
larger  towns,  and  by  union  of  school  districts  throughout  the  state. 

The  University  of  California  at  Berkeley  is  free  to  young 
men  and  women.  It  is  largely  endowed,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  equipped  and  most  progressive  institutions  in  the 
country.  It  has  a  large  bequest  for  the  erection  of  new 
buildings  on  its  extensive  grounds  overlooking  the  Golden 
Gate,  and  now  has  an  enrollment  of  about  4000  students. 

The  Lick  Observatory,  which  is  located  on  Mount  Hamilton,  is  a  de- 
partment of  the  University  of  California.  The  famous  Lick  telescope  is 
one  of  the  largest  instruments  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

There  are  five  state  normal  schools  —  at  San  Francisco, 
San  Jose,  Los  Angeles,  Chico,  and  San  Diego.  The  state 
also  supports  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind, 
and  the  feeble-minded.  Its  reform  schools  and  prisons  are 
well  conducted,  and  it  gives  aid  to  various  orphan  homes. 

There  are  many  excellent  private  and  denominational  schools  of  vari- 
ous grades.  The  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  at  Palo  Alto  has 
an  endowment  of  many  million  dollars,  and  offers  free  tuition  to  both 


sexes.  Both  in  tho  public  and  the  leading  private  schools  of  the  state  a 
prominent  feature  is  military  instruction  and  training.  The  cadet  corps 
of  the  university  of  California  includes  the  general  body  of  male  students, 
and  military  drill  is  a  regular  requirement.  aJ^ 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

About  one  third  of  the  people  live  in  San  Francisco, 
Los  Angeles,  and  Oakland;  so,  reckoning  smaller  cities, 
the  urban  population  of  California  is  relatively  large. 

San  Francisco,  the  principal  city  and  seaport  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  is  coextensive  with  San  Francisco  county. 
It  is  situated  on  the  hilly  peninsula  lying  between  San 
Franidsco  Bay  and  the  ocean,  south  of  the  Golden  Gate. 
Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  In  foreign 
commerce  San  Francisco  is  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  the 
United  States.  Its  chief  exports  and  imports  correspond 
withjhxwse^5fthe  state  at  large. 

Among  its  important  manufactures  are  mining  machinery,  ironwork, 
clothing,  furniture,  fruit  cans  and  boxes,  agricultural  implements,  boots 
and  shoes,  carriages,  and  saddlery.  Here  are  shipyards,  great  sugar  re- 
fineries, flour  mills,  packing  houses,  steel,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  brass 
works,  breweries  and  distilleries,  tanneries,  salmon-  and  fruit-canning 
establishments,  and  borax  works.  There  are  also  many  other  manu- 
factories with  a  variety  of  products. 

The  city  had  its  beginning  in  the  little  American  and  British  trading 
village  of  Yerba  Buena,  to  which  the  name  of  San  Francisco  was  given 
in  1847.  Upon  the  opening  of  the  gold  fields,  this  was  found  to  be  the 
natural  place  of  entrance  from  the  sea,  and  the  growth  here  of  a  great 
city  was  assured  from  the  first.  In  January,  1848,  the  population  was 
some  800.    The  population  in  1900  was  342,782. 

San  Francisco  has  many  notable  buildings,  and  is  the  location  of  a 
great  United  States  mint.  Besides  the  Golden  Gate  Park,  containing 
1050  acres,  there  are  several  smaller  parks  and  many  handsome  public 
squares.  In  addition  to  its  excellent  public  schools,  the  city  has  many 
private  and  denominational  schools  and  colleges  of  high  rank. 

Los  Angeles,  the  county  seat  of  Los  Angeles  county,  is 
the  second  city  in  the  state,  and  the  business  center  of 
southern  California.  It  is  noted  for  its  orange  groves,  de- 
ciduous fruit  orchards,  and  vineyards,  and  is  a  favorite 
winter  resort.  Its ,  population  in  1900  was  102,479.  Here 
are  productive  oil  wells,  and  the  city  has  growing  manu- 


City  Hall,  San  Francisco. 


12 


CALIFORNIA. 


factures.      The    educational 
facilities  are  excellent. 

Oakland,  the  county  seat  of 
Alameda  county,  is  on  the 
east  side  of  San  Francisco 
Bay,  and  is  closely  connected 
with  San  Francisco  by  fer- 
ries. It  is  a  favorite  place 
of  residence,  with  beautiful 
trees  and  gardens  and  a  very 
mild  climate.  The  city  has 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  cot- 
ton goods,  jute,  nails,  borax, 
and  other  articles;  a  lai'ge 
trade,  and  a  fine  school  sys- 
tem. 

Sacramento,  the  capital  of 
California  and  county  seat  of  state  Capitol, 

Sacramento  county,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Sacramento  and  American  rivers.  The  state  capitol  is  a 
grand  building,  erected  at  a  cost  of  about  $3,000,000. 

The  city  is  in  the  center  of  a  rich  farming  and  fruit-growing  region. 
It  has  a  large  trade,  and  ships  deciduous  fruits  in  immense  quantities. 
Here  are  extensive  railroad  shops,  and  manufactories  of  flour,  agricul- 
tural implements,  and  numerous  other  products.  Sacramento  has  excel- 
lent public  schools,  besides  several  institutions  for  higher  education. 

San  Jose,  the  county  seat  of  Santa  Clara  county,  is  the  trade  center  of 
the  rich  and  beautiful  Santa  Clara  valley.  The  city  deals  in  large  quan- 
tities of  fresh,  cured,  and  canned  fruits.  Besides  the  state  normal  school, 
San  Jose  has  other  excellent  educational  institutions. 

San  Diego,  the  county  seat  of  San  Diego  county,  has  one  of  the  best 
harbors,  after  San  Francisco,  on  the  Pacific  coast.  On  account  of  its 
equable  climate,  it  is  a  favorite  summer  and  winter  resort.  It  carries  on 
an  active  trade  with  Lower  California,  and  exports  much  fruit  and  honey. 

Stockton,  the  county  seat  of  San  Joaquin  county,  on  the  Stockton 
channel,  which  connects  the  city  with  the  San  Joaquin  River,  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade  with  the  surrounding  country  in  wheat,  wool,  and 
other  agricultural  products.  Here  are  important  manufactures,  including 
agricultural  implements,  flour,  carriages,  and  many  other  articles.  The 
schools  of  Stockton  are  excellent,  and  the  city  has  a  fine  public  library. 

Alameda,  contiguous  to  Oakland  on  the  south,  is,  like  the  latter,  an 
attractive  place  of  residence  for  people  doing  business  in  San  Francisco. 

Berkeley,  adjoining  Oakland  on  the  north,  is  not  only  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  California,  but  also  of  the  State  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind 
Asylum.     It  has  various  manufactures. 

Fresno^  the  county  seat  of  Fresno  county,  is  the  trade  center  of  a 
large  vine-  and  fruit-growing  region,  made  fertile  by  irrigation,  and 
noted  for  the  production  of  raisins. 

Pasadena,  in  Los  Angeles  county,  is  a  favorite  health  resort  and  resi- 
dence city,  beautifully  situated  on  high,  well-drained  mesa  land,  nine 
miles  north  of  Los  Angeles.     It  is  the  center  of  a  great  fruit  district. 

Riverside,  the  county  seat  of  Riverside  county,  is  a  beautiful  thriving 
city,  and  the  center  of  a  rich  orange  growing  district. 

Vallejo,  in  Solano  county,  on  San  Pablo  Bay,  has  large  flour  mills  and 
other  manufactories.  Here  is  a  United  States  navy  yard  on  Mare 
Island,  near  the  city. 

Eureka,  the  county  seat  of  Humboldt  county,  is  a  seaport  on  Hum- 
boldt Bay.  It  is  in  the  redwood  region,  and  besides  its  large  lumber 
trade,  it  has  important  interests  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  dairying. 

Santa  Rosa,  the  county  seat  of  Sonoma  county,  is  the  business  center 
of  the  fertile  Russian  River  valley.  It  has  large  interests  in  agriculture, 
wine  making,  and  dairying. 

Santa  Barbara,  the  county  seat  of  Santa  Barbara  county,  is  on  the 
sea-coast,  in  a  beautiful  region  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  is  a  noted 
health  resort  with  a  delightful  climate. 


San  Bernardino,  the  county  seat 
of  San*  Bernardino  county,  is  sur- 
rounded by  vineyards  and  orange 
groves.  It  has  many  artesian  wells. 
Santa  Cruz,  the  county  seat  of 
Santa  Cruz  county,  is  a  noted  sum- 
mer resort  for  sea  bathing.  The 
city  has  numerous  manufactures. 

Pomona,  in  Los  Angeles  county, 
is  in  a  rich  fruit  region.  Here  are 
olive  oil  works  and  other  manufac- 
tories. Pomona  has  good  schools 
and  a  public  library. 

Santa  Ana,  the  county  seat  of 
Orange  county,  is  a  flourishing  city 
in  a  rich  agricultural  and  horticul- 
tural district.  The  city  has  a  large 
trade  and  some  manufactures. 

Bakersfield,  Kern  county,  railroad 
machine  shops  and  other  manufac- 
Sacramento.  tories;  center  of  fruit  and  agricul- 

tural region  and  the  important  Kern  River  oil  fields. 

Auburn,  Placer  county,  mining,  fruit  growing,  and  wine  making} 
breweries;  health  resort.  Benicia,  Solano  county,  tanneries,  agricul- 
tural works,  fruit  and  fish  canneries,  pottery  works,  shipyard ;  United 
States  arsenal  and  barracks.  Chico,  Butte  county,  large  trade  in  farm 
products,  fresh  and  dried  fruits,  lumber,  and  mining  supplies ;  various 
and  important  manufactures.  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  county,  thriving 
city  in  a  region  of  extensive  quartz  mines.  Hanford,  Kings  county,  ship- 
ping point  for  agricultural  products  and  live  stock.  Long  Beach,  Los 
Angeles  county,  summer  resort  on  Pacific  Ocean.  Marysville,  Yuba 
county,  large  mining  and  agricultural  trade ;  variety  of  manufactories. 
Modesto,  Stanislaus  county,  center  of  a  fine  farming  region.  Napa, 
Napa  county,  commands  the  large  trade  of  Napa  valley ;  various  impor- 
tant manufactures.  Nevada  City,  Nevada  county,  center  of  an  extensive 
gold  quartz  mining  district. 

Petaluma,  Sonoma  county,  shipping  point  for  farm  products  of  the 
county ;  extensive  manufactures.  Placerville,  Eldorado  county,  large 
trade  in  agricultural  and  mining  supplies ;  a  center  of  deciduous  fruit 
industry.  Red  Bluff,  Tehama  county,  at  head  of  steamer  navigation  on 
the  Sacramento,  large  trade  in  farm  products  and  lumber.  Redding, 
Shasta  county,  trade  center  of  a  large  district.  Redlands,  San  Bernar- 
dino county,  extensive  fruit  and  lumber  business.  Salinas,  Monterey 
county,  large  business  in  flour  and  lumber.  San  Leandro,  Alameda 
county,  agriculture  and  fruit  growing ;  manufacturing.  San  Luis 
Obispo,  in  county  of  same  name,  and  in  fine  fruit-growing  and  agricul- 
tural district ;  various  manufactures.  San  Rafael,  Marin  county,  on  San 
Francisco  Bay,  in  a  great  dairying  region  ;  summer  resort.  Santa  Clara, 
Santa  Clara  county,  a  flourishing  place  in  a  rich  agricultural  region ; 
various  manufactures.  Santa  Monica,  Los  Angeles  county,  shipping 
port  for  products  of  southern  California ;  summer  resort.  Tulare,  Tulare 
county,  prosperous  city  in  the  southern  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley; 
agriculture  and  fruit  growing.  Ventura,  in  county  of  same  name,  im- 
portant business  in  oil,  lumber,  and  asphaltum.  Visalia,  Tulare  county, 
center  of  large  grain  and  fruit  region  in  San  Joaquin  valley.  Watson- 
ville,  Santa  Cruz  county,  beet  sugar,  fruit  and  lumber  industries.  Wood- 
land, Yolo  county,  flourishing  city  in  fine  agricultural  and  fruit  district ; 
variety  of  manufactures ;  superior  educational  facilities.  Yreka,  Siskiyou 
county,  in  northern  part  of  California,  trade  center  of  large  farming, 
lumbering,  fruit,  and  gold-mining  region.  Most  of  these  places  are  the 
county  seats  of  their  respective  counties. 

Among  other  places  of  importance  may  be  mentioned:  Gilroy,  Los_ 
Gatos,  and  Palo  Alto,  in  Santa  Clara  county ;  Hay  wards  and  Liverrnore,  in 
Alameda  county ;  Healdsburg,  in  Sonoma  county ;  Merced,  in  Merced 
county ;  Monterey,  in  Monterey  county ;  Saint  Helena,  in  Napa  county ; 
San  Mateo  and  Redwood  City,  in  San  Mateo  county;  San  Pedro  and 
Whittier,  in  Los  Angeles  county ;  Sausalito,  in  Marin  county ;  Sonora,  in 
Tuolumne  county  ;  and  Ukiah  and  Fort  Bragg,  in  Mendocino -county. 


Xa^  <H    d- 


\~s 


CALIFORNIA. 


13 


SOME  GEOGRAPHICAL   PROBLEMS  OF   TO-DAY. 

By  Ruliff  S.  Holway,  Instructor  in  the  University  of  California. 

On  finishing  this  book,  the  graduates  of  the  grammar 
schools  are  presumed  to  be  prepared  to  continue  the  intel- 
ligent study  of  geography  as  they  go  on  with  their  work 
in  life.  Geography  is  a  broad  subject.  No  matter  what 
may  be  one's  calling  in  life,  he  is  constantly  influenced 
by  geographical  conditions.  Uncivilized  man  was  largely 
controlled  by  the  natural  conditions  surrounding  him; 
civilized  man  is  more  and  more  learning  to  make  use  of 
his  environment  instead  of  being  retarded  by  it. 

The  best  industrial  future  for  California  is  to  be  obtained 
by  a  careful  study  of  our  winds  and  rainfall ;  of  our  soil 
and  the  structure  of  our  mountains;  of  the  storms,  cur- 
rents, and  tides  of  the  ocean  we  face;  of  the  conditions 
and  wants  of  the  peoples  whose  trade  we  desire :  in  fact, 
of  all  the  numberless  problems  of  geography  involved  in 
the  different  occupations  of  our  people. 

The  youth  of  California  are  fortunate  in  that  the  physical  geography 
of  the  state  is  so  extremely  varied,  and  that  it  presents  so  many  as  yet 
unsolved  problems.     There  are  many  pressing  questions   of   practical 
importance    the     solution    of 
which  means  financial  reward, 
and  still  other  problems  of  in- 
terest to  students  of  science  for 
its    own    sake.     Furthermore, 
the  history  of  the  past  shows 
that  the  questions  of  pure  sci- 
ence of  to-day  frequently  be- 
come the  conditions  of  practical 
business  to-morrow. 

In  presenting  in  the  simplest 
and  clearest  way  the  fundamen- 
tal facts  and  principles  of  a 
school  geography,  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  point  out  the  great 
number  of  things  which  we  do 
not  yet  understand;  conse- 
quently there  is  danger  that  the 

pupil  may  be  given  the  impres-  Irrigation 

sion  that  everything  in  geog- 
raphy is  well  settled  and  established.  In  reality  it  is  difficult  to  be 
entirely  certain  even  of  some  of  the  facts  and  principles  asserted  in  the 
preceding  pages.  Every  question  solved  reveals  new  ones  to  be  attacked. 
A  few  of  the  problems  now  apparent  to  the  people  of  California  will  be 
stated  to  supplement  the  main  text  of  this  book,  and  to  suggest  the  need 
for  more  investigation  by  the  young  men  and  women  of  the  immediate 
future. 

These  problems  will  be  found  to  affect  all  kinds  of  business.  The 
merchant,  the  farmer,  the  miner  —  in  fact,  men  in  every  occupation,  will 
be  interested  in  the  solution,  which  will  often  demand  the  best  of  prelim- 
inary training  and  also  long  years  of  careful  observation  and  study.  The 
thoughtful  observations  of  the  man  engaged  in  practical  work  in  the 
field,  and  the  most  abstract  studies  of  the  university  specialist  are  both 
needed  in  such  an  every-day  business  as  making  the  soil  and  the  insect 
life  of  a  California  ranch  work  together,  with  the  changing  weather  con- 
ditions, to  produce  the  most  valuable  crop. 


Irrigation. — If  a  man  buys  a  piece  of  land,  does  he  at 
the  same  time  buy  the  right  to  all  the  rain  that  falls  on 
that  land  ?  The  natural  answer  at  first  seems  to  be  that 
he  does,  as  a  matter  of  course.  But  if  a  man  goes  into  the 
foot-hills  and  buys  a  few  thousand  acres  that  form  the 
basin  for  the  head- waters  of  a  stream  flowing  out  into  some 

Copyright,  1904,  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  California. 


cultivated  valley,  does  he  buy  the  right  to  all  the  rain  that 
falls  on  that  land?  If  so,  he  can  build  a  dam  and  catch 
all  that  water  and  sell  it  to  a  distant  city,  thereby  depriv- 
ing the  people  in  the  valley  of  the  stream  that  formerly 
flowed  through  their  lands. 

Is  this  question  agitating  your  neighborhood  now  1  It  appears  in  so 
many  forms  that  it  is  not  likely  to  be  soon  settled.  Again,  a  man  buys 
a  ranch  with  a  flowing  artesian  well  upon  it.  Does  he  buy  the  right  to 
keep  other  men  on  other  laud  from  using  water  that  may  stop  his  well 
from  flowing?  Who  owns  the  underground  waters  of  California?  If 
the  people  in  the  upper  part  of  a  valley  put  down  so  many  wells  that  the 
people  in  the  lower  part  cannot  get  as  much  water  as  they  need,  have 
those  below  a  right  to  complain  1 

Just  think  of  the  work  to  be  done  to  settle  all  of  these  questions.  We 
must  have  the  structure  of  the  mountains  and  valleys  worked  out  so 
as  to  know  from  what  place  the  water  of  our  wells  really  comes.  We 
must  also  have  fair  and  just  laws  as  to  the  rights  of  these  different 
people.  In  law  we  wisely  follow  the  precedent  set  by  older  decisions  if 
possible.  But  with  new  conditions,  the  people,  through  their  lawyers, 
their  courts,  and  their  legislatures,  must  work  out  new  laws  founded  on 
justice  and  equity. 

Fortunately,  the  problem  of  irrigation  in  many  parts  of  the  state  has 
not  brought  up  all  these  questions.  Frequently  there  has  been  arid  land, 
suitable  for  cultivation,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  and  unoccupied 

by  people ;  or  mountains  with 
more  water  there  than  the  peo- 
ple can  possibly  use.  In  such 
places  the  question  has  been 
largely  one  for  engineers.  They 
have  had  to  plan  dams  that 
would  without  question  be 
strong  enough  to  hold  the  im- 
mense pressure  of  the  stored 
water.  They  have  had  to  make 
surveys  and  to  plan  the  loca- 
tion of  the  dams  and  the  distri- 
bution of  the  ditches  so  as  to 
give  the  best  service  at  the  most 
reasonable  cost.  The  engineer- 
ing questions  that  arise  in  doing 
these  things  well  are  not  by 
any  means  solved.  You  see 
Dam-  that  this  irrigation  question  is 

a  question  for  farmers,  lawyers, 
judges,  legislators,  geologists,  and  engineers.  These  men  are  not  all 
geographers,  but  when  this  work  is  done,  the  changes  that  are  brought 
about  in  the  occupation  of  the  people  and  in  the  productions  of  the 
state  come  within  the  province  of  geography  and  will  be  described  in 
the  text-books  of  the  future.  Think  of  the  work  before  the  people  of 
California  in  this  one  question  of  irrigation ! 


The  Soil. —  The  farmers  of  this  and  of  other  states  have 
found  that  certain  crops  do  well  on  certain  soils  and  fail 
on  others.  This  knowledge  has  often  been  gained  in  Cali- 
fornia fruit-raising  by  the  expensive  experience  of  giving 
several  years'  labor  and  money  to  proving  that  a  particu- 
lar fruit  tree  is  a  failure  in  a  certain  locality.  One  of  the 
problems  of  the  future  is  to  determine  for  what  crop  a 
particular  soil  in  a  given  locality  is  best  adapted  without 
an  attempt  to  raise  the  crop.  The  fact  that  some  of  the 
early  efforts  to  make  such  a  determination  have  not  been 
entirely  satisfactory  will  doubtless  spur  to  greater  activity 
the  men  working  in  this  line. 

In  connection  with  the  two  general  problems  of  soil  and  irrigation  it 
may  be  wise  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  irrigation  is  not  to  be 


14 


CALIFORNIA. 


thought  of  as  an  added  burden  for  the  agriculturist.  It  is  generally  true 
that  arid  soils  are  from  three  to  four  times  as  rich  as  humid  soils. 
Hence,  when  water  is  brought  to  them,  they  are  exceedingly  productive. 
Again,  where  the  average  rainfall  is  enough  to  produce  crops,  a  year  of 
drought  may  cause  an  utter  failure  for  the  season.  With  irrigation  the 
farmer  is  independent  of  the  time  of  rainfall. 

Work  of  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Office.— Study  the  maps 
of  winds  and  ocean  currents,  pp.  26-27.  What  are  trade  winds  ?  Which 
way  do  they  blow  near  Honolulu  ?  What  is  the  probable  cause  of  ocean 
currents  ?    Study  the  ocean  currents  of  the  North  Pacific. 

There  are  two  important  ways  of  improving  commerce. 
One  is  to  make  over  geographical  conditions  so  as  to  fit  the 
needs  of  man.  For  example, 
you  will  probably  see  in  a 
few  years  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  So  far 
as  commerce  is  concerned, 
that  is  making  a  strait  con- 
necting the  Atlantic  with 
the  Pacific  and  separating 
North  and  South  America. 
Another  way  to  improve 
commerce  is  to  study  the 
geographical  conditions  as 
they  are  and  to  learn  to 
make  use  of  them.  To  help 
in  this  latter  way  is  the  work 
of  the  Hydrographic  Office. 
It  studies  the  ocean  with 
regards  to  commerce,  and 
every  month  it  issues  pilot- 
charts  of  the  North  Pacific 
and  of  the  North  Atlantic 
for  the  guidance  of  vessels. 

These  charts  show  the  probable 
winds,  currents,  fogs,  the  usual  path 
of  storms,  the  fishing  banks,  and 
many  other  things.  Here  is  a  re- 
production of  a  part  of  the  North 
Pacific  chart  for  January,  1904. 
The  routes  of  vessels,  the  variation 
of  the  magnetic  needle,  and  other 
interesting  things  are  omitted  to 
make  the  rest  legible  on  the  small 

copy.  Perhaps  your  teacher  will  write  to  the  United  States  Hydro- 
graphic  Office  at  San  Francisco  or  Washington  and  ask  for  a  complete 
chart.  If  you  get  one,  see  if  you  can  tell  the  reason  that  sailing  vessels 
from  San  Diego  or  San  Francisco  start  off  to  the  south  of  west  on  their 
way  north  to  Puget  Sound. 

On  the  chart  the  small  black  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  ocean 
currents.  The  heavier  arrows  show  the  winds  —  the  length  of  the  arrow 
being  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  days  in  the  month  that  the  wind 
is  from  that  direction. 

Now  compare  the  idea  of  trade  winds  given  in  the  first  part  of  the 
geography  with  this  chart  made  for  use  in  practical  navigation.  Study 
the  chart  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  What  direction 
has  the  wind  directly  east  of  these  islands  ?  Can  you  find  the  place  on 
the  chart  where  the  winds  are  most  like  the  idea  you  obtained  from  the 
text-book?  Do  you  see  why  in  the  text-book  the  trades  are  called 
"nearly  constant  winds  ?  "  The  ocean  currents  on  the  pilot-chart  are 
shown  by  arrows  representing  the  prevailing  currents  only.  In  the  middle 
of  the  North  Atlantic  the  current  flowed  eastward  as  represented  in  the 


geography  in  only  62  per  cent,  of  a  large  number  of  observations.1  The 
pilot-chart  for  the  North  Pacific  prints  on  the  chart  a  statement  that  the 
currents  are  marked  from  very  scanty  information,  and  asks  masters  of 
vessels  to  help  in  the  further  study.  Notice  that  the  arrows  in  the 
south-flowing  current  off  California  are  not  perfectly  regular  in  direction, 
and  note  particularly  the  north-flowing  current  close  in  shore.  This  is 
called  the  Davidson  Inshore  Eddy.  The  water  for  100  to  150  miles  off 
shore  is  also  colder  thah-  that  further  out.  This  fact  is  important  as  one 
cause  of  the  coast  fogs  which  are  so  common. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  a  warm  Japan  current  washing  our  coast 
as  is  sometimes  said.  The  equatorial  current  flowing  northward  by  the 
Philippines  is  about  86°  F.,  but  after  its  long  drift  of  over  4000  miles 
across  the  Northern  Pacific  it  is  not  surprising  that  off  San  Francisco  it 
averages  only  about  55°  F.    So  many  things  have  been  said  about  the 

warm  Japan  current  off  the  Califor- 
nia shores  that  Professor  McAdie's 
recent  statement  is  quoted :  2 

"  For  some  years  there  has  been 
an  impression  that  the  milder  cli- 
mate of  the  Pacific  Coast  was  due 
to  a  warming  influence  of  the  Kuro 
Siwo  or  Japan  current.  No  reli- 
able data  exisj  to  support  such  a 
belief,  and  it  is  quite  unlikely  that 
the  Japan  current  plays  any  im- 
portant part  in  modifying  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Pacific  coast." 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  has  had  so 
many  more  vessels  sailing  on  it 
that  there  are  a  greater  number 
of  reliable  observations  available 
for  that  ocean  than  for  the  Pacific. 
The  pilot-charts  for  the  former 
ocean  have  been  of  great  value 
in  bringing  together  thousands  of 
scattered  observations,  and  the  Hy- 
drographic Office  has  pointed  out 
the  steamer  routes  that  are  most 
free  from  fogs  and  floating  ice,  and 
most  favorable  in  regard  to  winds 
and  currents. 

Increasing  commerce  on  the  Pa- 
cific will  bring  a  need  for  better 
charts  and  for  more  observers  to 
gather  data.  The  February,  1904, 
chart  contains  an  appeal  to  "all 
who  use  the  sea"  to  cooperate  in 
getting  definite  information  about 
the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle. 
(See  p.  6  for  variation  of  needle  for 
California.)  At  present  there  is 
sometimes  an  uncertainty  of  2°  in 
pointing  a  ship  at  sea  because  of  the  lack  of  definite  knowledge  on  this 
point. 

In  the  summer  of  1904  a  pilot-chart  will  be  issued  for  the  South  Atlan- 
tic, and  probably  during  the  year  following  a  similar  chart  for  the  South 
Pacific.  The  government  furnishes  these  charts  free  to  cooperating 
observers  without  regard  to  nationality,  and  others  can  secure  them  at 
the  cost  of  publication. 

Weather  and  Weather  Bureau.— Review  pp.  25-27  and  p.  54.  What 
are  prevailing  westerlies  ?  What  are  cyclones  1  If  you  are  south  of  the 
center  of  a  cyclone,  from  which  direction  is  the  wind?  How  is  rain 
caused  f    In  how  many  ways  is  the  air  in  winds  cooled  f 

The  weather  is  part  of  our  geographical  environment 
that  affects  the  life  of  each  one  of  us.  Civilized  people 
have  managed  to  protect  themselves  against  the  usual 

1  James  Page,  Monthly  Weather  Review,  August,  1902,  p.  397. 
'  Alexander  McAdie,  Climatology  of  California,  1903,  p.  15. 


CALIFORNIA. 


15 


extremes  of  weather,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  hope 
that  man  can  ever  make 
the  weather  to  suit  himself. 
Various  schemes  have  been 
devised  for  causing  rain  by 
a  heavy  cannonade  or  by 
firing  explosives  from  bal- 
loons, but  without  the  slight- 
est demonstrated  effect.  We 
are,  however,  learning  more 
and  more  about  the  way  that 
nature  makes  the  weather. 

The  observers  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  Service  are  scattered  over 
the  entire  United  States  and  a  part 
of  Canada,  and  every  morning  at 
eight  o'clock  they  record  certain 
facts  about  the  weather  at  that 
moment  —  temperai  ore,  pressure, 
wind,  and  general  conditions. 
These  observations  are  telegraphed 
to  Washington  and  to  a  few  gen- 
eral stations  like  San  Francisco, 
then  the  forecast  official  estimates 
the  probable  change  for  the  next 
thirty  to  thirty-six  hours. 


REFERENCE 

^|  0.00  to  10  inches 
[gi;;«it-:|  10  to  SO  inches 
H  80  to  SO  inches 
S  SO  to  1*0  inches 
H  Over  1*0  inches 


It  is  readily  seen  that  the  climate  of  California  must 
largely  depend  upon  the  fact  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  lies  to 
the  west  and  that  the  prevailing  wind  is  from  that  direction. 
Another  important  condition  affecting  the  weather  is  the 
unequal  distribution  of  air  over  the  world.  Over  great 
areas  having  more  air  than  others,  the  pressure  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  more  than  the  average.  Such 
a  mass  of  air  is  called  a  "high"  on  the  maps  of  the 
Weather  Bureau.  When  the  pressure  is  less  than\  the 
average  it  is  called  a  "low."  Besides  these  great  masses 
of  air,  relatively  smaller  "  highs  "  and  "  lows  "  (called  "  anti- 
cyclones" and  "cyclones,"  see  p.  26)  drift  eastward  in 
our  latitude,  turning  like  whirlpools  as  they  go. 


getting  water  for  irrigation  ?  Com- 
pare this  map  with  the  forestry 
map  on  p.  59. 

If  the  wind  is  forced  up  by 
mountains,  it  expands  because  the 
pressure  is  less  and,  cooled  by  the 
expansion  of  the  air,  more  moisture 
is  precipitated.  Lick  Observatory, 
on  the  top  of  Mt.  Hamilton,  has 
about  twice  as  much  rainfall  as 
San  Jose,  only  fourteen  miles  west 
of  it. 

The  little  rainfall  in  California 
in  summer  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  path  of  the  storm  centers  is 
usually  in  British  Columbia,  too  far 
north  to  make  south  winds  down 
here.  Oregon  and  Washington,  be- 
ing farther  north,  have  more  rain  in 
the  summer  months  than  we  have. 
The  officials  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  make  a  high  average  of 
successful  forecasts.  When  you 
reflect  on  the  fact  that  our  lows 
come  from  the  North  Pacific  and 
we  can,  as  yet,  have  no  telegraph 
reports  from  mid-ocean,  you  will 
realize  how  much  is  asked  of  fore- 
cast officials  on  our  coast.  This  is 
a  long  preface  to  a  statement  of  the 
problem  yet  to  be  solved.  We  need 
first  to  know  better  the  reasons  for  the  storms  and  the  laws  of  their 
motions.  We  need  to  have  much  longer  forecasts,  so  that  the  work  of 
agriculture  and  commerce  may  be  planned  according  to  the  weather. 
We  even  want  to  know  in  the  summer  whether  a  wet  or  a  dry  winter  is 
coming.    Many  men  are  working  hopefully  along  these  lines. 

Manufactures.— Review  maps  of  the  United  States,  pp.  57-60,  show- 
ing density  of  population,  distribution  of  coal  and  distribution  of 
railroads.  Read  paragraph  on  p.  59  about  the  distribution  of  iron  ore 
and  of  petroleum.  Review  pages  41  and  42  on  manufactures  and  com- 
merce. What  do  you  think  of  the  opportunity  for  California  in  manu- 
facturing? Read  the  paragraph  on  p.  9  of  the  Supplement  relating 
to  the  amount  of  California  manufactures  at  present. 


Forecasting  is  getting  a  map  of 
these  whirls  (lows  and  highs)  as 
they  are  at  one  instant,  and  judg- 
ing how  fast  and  in  just  what  path 
they  will  go  eastward  and  whether 
they  will  grow  stronger  or  die  out. 
The  average  path  of  the  storm 
center  in  winter  lies  north  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  winds  blowing  to- 
ward the  center  of  the  low  are 
hence,  for  us,  southerly  winds,  al- 
though part  of  a  whirl  that  is  mov- 
ing eastward.  The  moisture  in 
these  winds  drops  as  rain  in  pro- 
portion to  the  degree  to  which  the 
winds  are  cooled. 

Compare  this  map  with  the  phy- 
sical map  of  California.  Try  to 
explain  the  location  of  the  main 
areas  of  heavy  rainfall.  What 
areas  must  depend  on  irrigation? 
Which  areas  have  little  prospect  of 


The  coal  fields  of  California  are  not  important  as  com- 
pared with  those  in  the  East,  but  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  petroleum  fields  will 
greatly  stimulate  manufac- 
turing. According  to  a  1903 
bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  the  petro- 
leum fields  of  California,  as 
known  at  present,  lie  on  both 
sides  of  the  Central  Valley,  in 
the  Coast  Banges,  and  along 
the  Pacific.  The  greatest  de- 
velopment is  south  of  San 
Francisco.  Northward  of 
San  Francisco  there  is  one 
field  at  present  near  Eureka, 
and  many  prospects  which 
may  become  important.  The 
best    known    fields    in    the 

Electric  Power  House,  Colgate.  Southern   part    of    the  state 


16 


CALIFORNIA. 


are  Coalinga,  Sunset,  McKittrick,  Kern  River,  Summer- 
land,  and  those  in  and  near  the  city  of  Los  Angeles. 

Locate  these  fields  on  the  map.  A  pipe  line  has  been  laid  from  Kern 
County  to  Point  Richmond  in  San  Francisco  Bay  to  carry  the  oil  to 
tide-water.  What  effect  will  this  have  on  manufactures  1  The  Geologi- 
cal Survey  Bulletin,  referred  to  above,  states  in  its  summary  "  That  the 
stratigraphic  and  structural  conditions  under  which  oil  occurs  in  the 
known  fields  are  many  times  repeated  elsewhere  in  the  Coast  Range  and 
the  territory  contiguous  thereto,  from  which  it'*may  be  argued  that 
additional  fields  will  in  turn  be  discovered." 1 

In  addition  to  the  coal  and  oil  which  California  has,  there  is  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  energy  going  to  waste  in  the  waterfalls  of  the  moun- 
tains. These  falls  are  so  far  from  the  cities  that,  formerly,  the  power 
could  not  be  utilized.  To-day  this  water  is  carried  down  the  steep  slopes 
in  strong  pipes  and  made  to  turn  water-wheels.  These  run  great 
dynamos  that  transform  the  energy  of  the  falling  water  into  electricity, 
which  is  carried  by  wire  to  the  cities  far  away.  What  raised  the  water 
to  the  top  of  the  mountains  to  make  possible  this  water  power  ?  What 
lines  for  the  transmission  of  electric  power  are  near  your  home  ?  In 
addition  to  the  geographical  conditions  affecting  the  future  of  manu- 
facturing in  California,  we  must  remember  that  there  is  another  impor- 
tant element  —  the  skill  and  energy 
of  our  people. 

The  Development  of  Civ- 
ilization on  the  Pacific. — 

Civilization  began  in  Asia. 
From  the  valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates it  moved  "out  west" 
to  Greece,  and  then  still 
westward  to  Italy.  For  a 
long  time  the  Mediterranean 
was  the  center  of  commerce. 
Afterwards  on  the  far  west- 
ern shores  of  the  then  known 
world,  Portugal  and  Spain  be- 
came rulers  of  the  sea,  only 
to  yield  place  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  of  the  British  Isles. 
As  America  developed  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  became  the 


Landing  the  Pacific  Cable,  Honolulu 


great  highway  for  the  commerce  of  the  world.  Now  the 
wave  of  immigration  has  swept  across  the  United  States 
to  the  shores  of  the  greatest  ocean.  You  have  seen  the 
final  impulse  carry  our  flag  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and 
on  to  the  Philippines  clear  across  the  Pacific.  Our  far 
west  is  now  in  the  midst  of  the  far  east  of  former  days. 

Many  students  of  history  are  wondering  what  development  will  come 
from  this  meeting  of  the  Occident  and  the  Orient.  China's  policy  of 
exclusion  of  foreigners  is  already  broken  for  some  of  her  ports.  Her 
power  to  yet  affect  the  world  is  unknown.  A  single  fact  is  full  of  sugges- 
tion. Her  coal  fields  are  some  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  world,  and 
they  have  hardly  been  touched.  The  end  of  the  coal  fields  of  England 
is  plainly  seen,  although  still  far  distant.  The  wonderful  development 
of  Japan  in  the  last  fifty  years  shows  what  a  thoroughly  awakened  nation 
may  do.  It  is  strange  to  be  considering  the  Philippines,  China,  and 
Japan  as  part  of  the  geography  problems  of  California.  But  we  know 
that  already  the  business  and  lives  of  many  people  in  the  state  have 
been  affected  by  the  recent  changes.  To-day  it  takes  no  longer  to  send 
a  message  to  friends  in  the  Philippines  than  to  call  on  neighbors  but  a 
short  distance  away.  Do  you  remember  the  laying  of  the  ocean  cable  to 
Honolulu  and  Manila  in  1903  ?  Study  this  picture  of  the  welcome  Hono- 
lulu gave  the  cable. 

i  Bulletin  213,  U.  8.  Geological  Survey,  p.  321. 


Can  you  see  more  things  of  interest  than  the  questions  suggest? 
Compare  the  cable  lines  of  the  Pacific  with  those  of  the  Atlantic.  (See 
maps  of  the  wprld,  pp.  154-5.)  Can  the  advance  of  civilization  be 
measured  in  the  number  of  cable  lines  ? 

The  greatest  single  event  for  you  to  look  forward  to  in 
the  development  of  the  Pacific  is  probably  the  building  of 
a  canal  across  the  "isthmus  of  Panama.  Few  of  us  realize 
how  long  such  a  thing  has  been  planned  and  how  many 
men  have  been  fascinated  by  the  project.  Long  ago,  when 
Cortez  was  Governor  of  Mexico,  the  Spanish  government 
had  engineers  investigating  a  route  across  the  isthmus. 
Since  then  many  nations  have  schemed  to  build  and  to 
control  a  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 
It  would  be  a  story  of  thrilling  interest  if  some  one  would 
tell  the  history  of  the  men  who  have  planned  and  struggled 
for  this  object  and  of  the  money  and  lives  it  has  already 
cost.  The  early  canals  that  were  planned  were  of  a  size  to 
carry  the   small  ships   of  the  time.     Possibly  with  the 

means  of  construction  which 
they  had,  the  task  for  them 
would  have  been  even  more 
difficult  than  we  shall  find  it 
to-day. 

We  are  now  in  the  midst 
of  a  new  chapter  in  this  long 
story.  On  November  3, 1903, 
the  department  of  Panama 
declared  its  independence  of 
Colombia,  and  the  new  re- 
public has  been  recognized 
by  the  United  States  and  by 
several  European  govern- 
ments. 

A  treaty  has  been  negotiated 
between  the  new  state  of  Panama 
and  the  United  States,  which  gives 
our  country  the  right  to  build  an 
interoeeanic  canal  across  the  isthmus.  You  and  your  teacher  will  have 
to  tell  of  the  events  since  then.  Has  this  revolution  of  Panama  been  an 
important  event  to  the  world  at  large  1  To-day  we  feel  sure  that  at 
least  some  canal  will  soon  be  built,  and  that  its  control  and  protection 
will  belong  to  the  United  States.  The  building  of  this  canal  is  bound  to 
stand  as  one  of  the  greatest  changes  in  geographical  conditions  which 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  So  far  as  water  communications  are  concerned, 
San  Francisco  will  be  brought  suddenly  several  thousand  miles  nearer  to 
the  Atlantic  ports.  Its  effect  on  commerce  and  the  development  of  civ- 
ilization in  California  will  be  interwoven  with  the  results  from  the  work- 
ing out  of  all  the  other  problems  which  have  been  discussed.  If  you 
study  the  changes  which  are  coming  to  our  state,  you  will  always  have 
before  you  a  geography  lesson  that  will  continually  present  something 
new  and  interesting. 

To  indicate  some  of  the  geographical  problems  which 
must  be  worked  out  in  order  to  facilitate  the  advance  of 
the  material  civilization  of  our  state  has  been  an  easy  mat- 
ter. We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  real  civilization 
is  finally  measured  by  the  advance  in  science,  literature, 
art,  politics,  and  religion.  Success  in  conquering  physical 
difficulties  is  but  laying  a  better  foundation  for  the  things 
of  higher  value. 


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